In general, management exists as long as there are people and their relationships, that is, in fact, always. But in different eras it took different forms. Nevertheless, as numerous studies have shown, management has always been based on three main ways of managing people:
Creation of clear ownership relationships;
Construction of various organizational structures;
Development of a system of "written and unwritten" values.
Holistic management systems with a theoretical basis began to be created only in the era of the formation of developed capitalism, that is, at the end of the 19th century. This is explained by the fact that capitalism has so complicated the production and social relations between people that intuitive concepts have become insufficient - serious generalizations of the accumulated practical results and new theoretical developments were required. These processes became especially active at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries - the so-called "management schools" began to emerge.
Historically, the “school of scientific management” arose, the founder of which is considered to be the American engineer F. Taylor. Well-known American authorities in the field of management G. Ford (the founder of the world-famous automobile manufacturer Ford motors) and G. Emerson also belong to this school. This school presupposes “the development of numerous rules, laws and formulas, which take the place of the personal judgment of the individual worker and which can only be usefully applied after systematic accounting, measurement, etc. has been carried out. their actions."
Somewhat later, a "school of classical or administrative management" appeared. Its founder was also the American A. Fayol. He first formulated the principles of administrative management:
Power is inseparable from responsibility;
Unity of disposition;
Discipline for all;
Unity of leadership;
Subordination of individual interests to common ones;
Labor remuneration;
Centralization and hierarchy;
Order in everything;
Justice in everything;
Staff resilience;
corporate spirit.
The application of these principles in the practice of managing an organization removes a whole range of issues related to relationships between people.
The next in the United States was the "school of human relations", the founder of which was J. Mayo. He showed the importance of informal connections that arise between people in organizations. The essence of his concept is that the establishment of "human relations" between people, that is, a certain and rather complex system of formal and informal connections, leads to a significant increase in labor productivity and a decrease in various losses, in particular, losses of working time.
A further development of the "school of human relations" was the emergence of the "school of behavioral sciences", the author of which is considered to be the American sociologist with Russian roots A. Maslow. He built a "pyramid of needs", which makes it possible to predict a person's behavior in various situations quite well.
Also from the "school of human relations" emerged the "empirical school of management", which was based on the conceptual statement that a good manager can only be based on one's own experience.
After the Second World War, mathematical methods began to appear in management:
Operations research;
Economic and mathematical methods;
Linear programming (planning).
The Soviet mathematician L. V. Kantorovich achieved great success in the development of linear programming methods. He was awarded the Nobel Prize.
In the late 1940s, the American mathematician N. Wiener published his famous book "Cybernetics", which opened a new era in management. In this work, the author argued that the control processes in technical, physical, biological and social systems are the same. He also introduced the concept of negative and positive feedback, which laid the foundation for another important concept - the stability of the functioning of the system. In the USSR, this direction was actively taken up, although for political reasons, instead of the term "cybernetics" was used " automatic control". Thanks to the achievements of domestic researchers of that period - A. I. Berg, A. N. Kolmogorov, V. M. Glushkov and others, it became possible to implement the most complex flight control systems for rocket and space technology.
In the same period, the works of the Austrian Ludwig von Bertalanffy appeared, in which techniques were used that were called the “system approach to management”. Although, as it turned out later, many of the ideas used by von Bertalanffy were proposed back in the 1920s by the Russian naturalist A. A. Bogdanov.
In the 1990s, a synergetic approach began to be actively used in management, the founder of which is the Belgian physicist of Russian origin I. Prigogine. Synergetics allows taking into account in management the so-called cooperative effects, which allow achieving more with less effort.
In Russia, speaking in a historical retrospective about the development of management in the modern sense, one can mention the era of Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible (mid and second half of the 16th century), when a clear state and local government was first introduced. The next important milestone was the era of Peter I, when the state was founded in Russia European type. After the expulsion of Napoleon's army during the reign of Emperor Alexander 1, his then favorite M. M. Speransky carried out a significant modernization of the Russian state - ministries and departments were introduced, which have survived to this day despite any external and internal transformations. After the unsuccessful Crimean War, Emperor Alexander II abolished serfdom in 1856 and carried out state, military and judicial reforms. As a result, local self-government, the zemstvo, appeared for the second time, and capitalism began to actively develop. Already in the 1880-1890s, the then Minister of Finance, and then Prime Minister S. Yu. Witte, made unprecedented management efforts in the history of Russia to develop the national economy and, in particular, railways. After the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, Prime Minister P. A. Stolypin took significant measures to strengthen the development of capitalism in Russia and, in particular, capitalism in the countryside, which cost him his life.
During the Soviet era, significant measures were also taken to develop management:
Already mentioned A. A. Bogdanov in the 1920s laid the foundations of the general theory of systems, which is the basis of modern management;
A.K. Gastev in the 1920-1930s proposed the idea of "bottlenecks" in management, which require priority jointing; his ideas were later revived in the form of network diagrams;
P. M. Kerzhentsev in the same period proposed a number of fundamental points: a plan, organization of work to implement the plan, accounting and control of implementation, distribution of rights and duties, etc., which have now become common management practice throughout the world;
G. A. Kulagin developed in the 1960s-1970s the issues of managing complex industrial complexes and large enterprises
Politics is inseparable from power, and political, power relations permeate the entire society, intertwined with economic relations. Therefore, it is not surprising that the problem of the relationship between politics and economics, and, accordingly, political and economic power, has always attracted people's attention.
Based on the concept of base and superstructure, the founders of this theory shared economic and political power, showing at the same time the close connection between economics and politics. The economy, in their opinion, has a decisive influence on politics, but the latter, in turn, has a reverse effect on the economy.
The primacy of politics over the economy is due to the fact that politics, political power has a certain autonomy, independence from the economy. A feature of political power is the ability to use, on completely legal grounds, coercive measures against those who do not want to obey the accepted norms, rules of conduct or the will of the ruling circles. Economic power as such is not characterized by political coercion.
For a correct understanding of the question of whether the economy determines politics or vice versa, it is necessary to take into account the following circumstance: the economy is the same element of the culture of society as politics, and they are associated with the categories of interest, goals and means. Both are the essence of social relations. The economy is not production, not distribution, but the social relations of production, i.e. relations of people, classes, parties in the process of production and distribution. And politics is also the social relations of people, classes, parties and states in the process of reproduction of social life. Therefore, they are inseparable and interdependent.
The significance of the economic or political aspects of social relations does not remain constant. The specific situation, the tasks facing society, the possession of the means of production that allow the exercise of economic and political power leave their mark. With a small amount of ownership of material resources, concentrated in the hands of those exercising political power, the relationship between the economy and politics exists, but it is realized indirectly, through managers. When huge material resources are concentrated in hands that exercise political power and, moreover, have control over production and distribution, then there is an especially strong connection between economics and politics, a close interweaving of economic and political power, and the dominance of politics. This is especially characteristic of etacratic societies, where property is nationalized and the bureaucracy has the ability to dispose of it uncontrollably. Thus, political, and more specifically state, power is combined with economic power. As a result, economic power and economic relations lose their inherent independence, and only powerful political relations dominate. Political methods of managing society come to the fore. main goal the ruling elite becomes the preservation and strengthening of its power, control over property, which gives it this power, the ability to distribute at its discretion the material goods produced.
The dependence of the economy on politics can also be traced in other conditions, when property is not nationalized and market relations dominate. This is evidenced by the experience of Chile, where the military dictatorship of Pinochet was established, whose regime was able to boost the economy and bring the country out of the crisis. A similar situation was inherent in the authoritarian regime of South Korea, which ensured the growth of the country's economic potential.
In a democratic society of the post-industrial type, where a market economy dominates and a democratically elected political power functions, the economy is freer, economic power is relatively independent and has a certain influence on state policy (on social policy, for example). But even here the economy, economic power is not separated from political power. One of the functions of state power is the regulation of the economic sphere, the implementation of certain transformations in the interests of, above all, the middle class. The ruling elite of a modern democratic state manages society, including the economy, not only taking into account their own interests, but also the interests of the bulk of the population.
Thus, politics must take precedence over the economy, which is by its very nature spontaneous. Its curbing, introduction into a certain framework and serve the political will and reason, embodied in the state. Therefore, with the organization of human society on the basis of statehood, politics has always dealt with regulation, curbing economic forces in the name of preserving society as an integrity.
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1. Introduction
Which of the following characterizes management as an art?
Man as a subject of control
Management concept
Modeling and quantification
The main characteristic of an organization as an open system
Willingness to rethink your mission
Exchange of resources with the external environment
Market Leadership
The science of management affects its effectiveness in the following ways:
Allows you to see and recognize the problem
Forms professional consciousness
Develops and equips management with new methods
Management is:
Art and science
The science
Art
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2. Development of management as a scientific discipline
The principles of the bureaucratic method of personnel management were the first to formulate:
F. Taylor
A. Smith
A. Fayol
M. Weber
A new scientific direction in management, which emerged from the results of the Hawthorne experiment, is based on the premise that ...
management work is a specialty
continuous improvement of technological operations is the key to the effectiveness of the organization
well-designed work operations and good wages are the key to increasing labor productivity
The human factor is the main element of the effectiveness of the organization
Representatives of the school of scientific management named as the main objectives of the study:
Maintaining a satisfactory socio-psychological climate in the organization
Temporary control of production operations
Maximize workplace productivity
Definition of functions and principles of effective management
Peter Drucker is considered the founder of the approach to management:
software
situational
systemic
process
One of the basic principles of management according to Henri Fayol says: "Power is inseparable from ..."
Responsibility
arrived
administration
corruption
3. External and internal environment of the organization
The main characteristics of the external environment of the organization include ...
interconnectedness and predictability
certainty and predictability
complexity, mobility, certainty
Interconnection of factors, complexity and uncertainty
The elements that make up the environment of indirect impact on the enterprise include ...
competitors
natural and climatic conditions
International events
suppliers
According to management theory, environmental factors of indirect impact include:
culture
consumers
unions and interest societies
suppliers
According to management theory, a manager can directly influence the following factors...
Organization structure
Organization goals
mass media
competitors
In the practice of management, business on the Internet has the following advantages..
reduces the cost of goods by reducing quality
focused on a niche market and requires a good knowledge of the regular consumer
combines the system of individual orders and mass production
Provides cost savings and faster time-to-market
4. Sociofactors and ethics of management
Ethics is...
level of education
The system of norms of moral behavior
form of social consciousness
public institution
Ethical values towards employees may include:
honesty in competition
Social guarantees
attention to consumers
Fair pay
An ethical approach to understanding the social responsibility of business means:
managers and employees of the organization are responsible for a balanced pursuit of both the interests of the company and the interests of stakeholders
organizations must bear voluntary obligations to society and allocate part of the funds for its improvement
business organizations should serve the interests of their owners
The organization as a whole has ethical obligations to certain groups of interested parties - stakeholders
One approach to business ethics is
individualism
democracy
liberalism
Utilitarianism
5. Management communications
Intraorganizational processes, formed and directed by management, include three main processes: coordination, decision making and ...
Communications
motivation
planning
control
According to management theory, the main elements of the communication process are ...
Sender, message, channel, recipient
environment, sender, message, recipient
sender, non-verbal information, channel, recipient
organization, sender, message, recipient
According to the theory of management in the information network ____, one manager controls the activities of several subordinates, information flows come from one center, which allows you to quickly take action.
"tent"
+"star"
"spur"
"circle"
From the point of view of management theory, there are no barriers to interpersonal communication
use of demagogy methods
semantic barriers
non-verbal barriers
Information overload
The purposes of the exchange of information are not:
improving the efficiency of the organization
Choosing the most economical alternative
ensuring the consistent movement of the organization towards the intended goals
choosing an alternative from the majority of possible options
6. The process of making a managerial decision
When forming a sequence of actions in the procedure for making a managerial decision, the “problem identification” stage is understood as ...
Choosing the only alternative
Analysis of deviations from standard values
Description of the problem situation
Formation of a list of alternatives
Bringing tasks to performers in the process of implementing a management decision means setting specific tasks for each performer and determining them ...
Their rights, obligations and functions in the execution of the decision
their relation to the implemented solution
their ability to implement it
wages and their work
If you need to make a rational management decision, you ...
you will be guided by "common sense" and past experience of actions in similar situations
weigh the positive and negative consequences of each course of action and make a decision based on the “lesser of two evils” principle
without first analyzing the situation, decide on impulse that the chosen course of action is the best
Determine the symptoms, limitations and criteria of optimality, by which you can compare different alternatives and choose the best one.
The brainstorming method in making managerial decisions is focused on ....
development of creative ideas by specialists with the help of the association
Collective development of creative ideas
application of sole authority of an expert
development of a detailed algorithm for the problem solving process
The starting point for verifying the execution of a management decision should be ...
planning the implementation of the solution for the future
observation and measurement of the processes and phenomena being checked
comparison of the results of checking the execution of the solution with the specified standards
Determination of the parameters of the functioning of the organization, subject to verification
7. Strategic planning as a management function
The result of the current planning is:
Annual Plan
Mission
Investment project
strategic plan
The process of determining the direction of development of the organization and developing practical measures to achieve the goals of the organization in management is called ..
control
organization
forecasting
Planning
Forecasting in management theory is a management method that uses ...
Current assumptions about future developments
analysis of compliance with planned and actual indicators
data on the impact of external factors on the enterprise
Experience accumulated in the past
Which of the forecasting methods in management theory require information about the predicted project parameter for previous periods ...
extrapolation method
expert opinions
regression model development
"brain attack"
Planning objects in the organization do not include ...
Quotas
frames
marketing
finance
8. Organizational forms and management structures
The process of transferring authority to subordinate managers to perform special tasks is called ________ authority.
Withdrawal
delegation
distribution
narrowing
The rights of a manager to use certain resources of the organization, as well as direct the efforts of individual employees to perform certain tasks, are the essence of the term
power
responsibility
delegation
Powers
For a small firm producing one or more types of products or services, from the point of view of management theory, the most appropriate organizational structure
divisional
matrix
informal
Linear-functional
In management, the divisional division of the organizational structure is based on principles such as...
Grocery (productive)
political
Geographical
consumer
The principle of responsibility in management means
The need for punishment for non-compliance with assigned tasks
Knowledge by the manager of the control object
Vertical division of managerial labor
Identification of management levels and building a hierarchy
9. Control as a function of management
The essence of coordination as a general management function is ...
customer satisfaction
profit maximization
Taking timely measures to ensure the smooth progress of production
detecting a problem in the production process
An effective control system should have the following characteristics: timeliness, flexibility, simplicity and …
structural
economy
Formalization of procedures
many variability of methods and methods of control
The system for checking the compliance of the functioning of the control object at given points in time is called ...
substantiation
control
regulation
leadership
Preliminary control at a specific area of work provides for the prevention of violations of the established rules for conducting work and precedes the process ...
Analysis of the organization's environment
Installations of production equipment in this area
planning
Carrying out business transactions
The types of control in management do not include _______ control.
preliminary
final
current
motivating
Henri Fayol (1841-1925), considered the "father of scientific management". The object of his interests was the organization as a whole, and not individual aspects of its activities, and in addition, he studied and described management activities as such, which no one had done before him. Unlike, for example, Taylor, Fayol argued that administrative functions exist at any level, and to a certain extent even workers perform them.
To substantiate the classical (administrative) direction, Henri Fayol had certain prerequisites in the form of understanding the huge personal experience. From 1888, for 40 years, he managed the large mining company Colombo, which he headed when it was close to financial collapse, and left a prosperous, leading position in the world.
Fayol outlined his views on management problems in the book General and Industrial Management (1916). After retiring, he headed the Center for Administrative Studies.
He reduced the functioning of any organization to the following main activities:
Technical, that is, the implementation of the production process;
Commercial, which consists in the purchase of everything necessary for the creation of goods and services and the sale of finished products;
Financial, related to the attraction, preservation and efficient use of funds;
Accounting, which consists in conducting statistical observations, inventories, compiling balance sheets, etc.
Administrative, designed to influence employees.
Fayol considered administrative as the main field of activity. He determined that management activities include five mandatory functions: foresight (planning), organization, command, coordination and control.
Having deeply comprehended the patterns of functioning of the organization, Henri Fayol formulated the famous 14 principles of administrative management, which retain their significance to this day:
1. Division of labor. The purpose of the division of labor is to increase the volume and improve the quality of production with the same effort.
2. Power is inseparable from responsibility. Power is the right to give orders and the power to compel obedience. Power is unthinkable without responsibility, that is, without sanctions - rewards or punishments that accompany its actions. Wherever there is power, there is responsibility.
3. Discipline is essentially obedience, diligence, demeanor, outward signs of respect shown in accordance with the agreement established between the enterprise and its employees. The state of discipline in any social education depends entirely on its leaders.
4. Unity of management. An employee should receive orders from only one immediate superior.
5. Unity of leadership. Each group operating within the same goal must be united by a single plan and have one leader.
6. Subordination of private interests to the general ones. This principle states that in an enterprise, the interests of employees, or a group of employees, should not become higher than the interests of the enterprise. Here are presented two categories of interests of a different order, but at the same time deserving of recognition; try to reconcile them. This is one of the great difficulties of management.
7. Remuneration of personnel. Employee remuneration is payment for the work performed. It must be fair and, if possible, satisfy the personnel of the enterprise, the employer and the employee.
8. Reasonable centralization. Centralization is not a management system, good or bad in itself: it can be accepted or rejected depending on the tendencies of the leader and on the circumstances, but to a greater or lesser extent it always exists. The question of centralization or decentralization is a matter of measure. It comes down to finding the degree of centralization that is most favorable for the enterprise.
9. Hierarchy. Hierarchy is a series of leadership positions, beginning with the lowest and ending with the highest.
10. Order. The formula of the material order is well known: a certain place for every thing and every thing in its place. The form of social order is the same: a certain place for each person and each person in his place.
11. Justice. In order to encourage personnel to perform their duties with full zeal and devotion, they must be treated favorably.
12. The constancy of the staff. Staff turnover is both a cause and a consequence of a poor state of affairs. However, line-up changes are inevitable: age, illness, resignations, death disrupt the line-up. social education; some employees lose the ability to perform their functions, while others are unable to take on more responsible work. Thus, like other principles, the principle of fluidity of the working composition has its measure.
1. Introduction
2. Emergence of management science
3. Formulation of the principles and goals of management
4. Schools and approaches in the science of management. Schools in management
5. The emergence of the science of management decisions and its relationship with other management sciences
6.Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
The development of managerial decisions is an important process that links the main functions of management: planning, organization, motivation and control. It is the decisions made by the leaders of any organization that determine not only the effectiveness of its activities, but also the possibility of sustainable development, survival in a rapidly changing world. Making effective decisions is one of the most important conditions for the effective existence and development of an organization.
The importance of the decision-making process was realized by mankind simultaneously with the beginning of its conscious collective activity. Management practices are as old as organizations. Clay tablets dating back to the third millennium BC record the commercial transactions and laws of ancient Sumeria, providing evidence for the existence of administrative practices there. Archaeological excavations also provide more ancient evidence for the existence of organizations: even prehistoric people often lived in organized groups.
Although management itself is as old as the world, the science of management is relatively new. Management was recognized as an independent field of activity only in the 20th century. As for the theory of managerial decision-making, the beginning of its intensive development as a scientific discipline can be considered the 40s. In the 1950s and 1960s, the established and widely used system of management decision-making methods was rethought and formulated in the form of specially emerging scientific disciplines, such as operations research, system analysis, and management. technical systems and others. Modern management science has established itself as a special field of knowledge, has become the subject of study of higher education.
2. Emergence of management science
Management in human society has existed since time immemorial. Any state structure, any organized human activity assumes that there is an object of control (what is controlled) and a subject of control (the one who controls). Without effectively organized administrative activity, neither the construction of the Egyptian pyramids, nor the creation of the hanging gardens of Babylon, nor the conduct of wars, nor the emergence and flourishing of city states was possible.
Practical management arose when organizations appeared. However, the organizations of antiquity differed in many ways from those of today. The main differences between old organizations and modern ones: a small number of large organizations, a relatively small number of leaders, the virtual absence of middle managers, taking leadership positions by birthright or by force of capture, emphasis on order and intuition, a small number of people who were given the right to take important to organize a solution. However, since ancient times, people have paid more attention to how to acquire more power, how to make money, etc., and less thought about how to effectively carry out the process of management, which in the end could more reliably lead them to the goal. The science of management began to develop intensively only from the beginning of the 20th century. From earlier periods of human activity, only fragmentary, scattered information has come down to us, containing an analysis and generalization of management experience. For example, the book "Instructions of Ptahhotep" (Ancient Egypt, 2000-1500 BC) contains advice to the boss - the subject of control: "... be calm when you listen to the words of the petitioner; do not push him away before he relieves the soul from what I wanted to tell you. A man stricken with misfortune wants to pour out his soul even more than to achieve a favorable solution to his question.
In ancient Greece, Plato spoke about the need for specialization of production processes. Socrates, analyzing the activities of managers in various fields of activity, spoke about the general that forms the basis of labor: "The main task is to put the right person in the right place and achieve the fulfillment of his instructions."
In ancient Rome, Cato the Elder (234-149 BC) advised the owner of the land "to see how far the work has progressed, what has been done and what remains to be done. After that, he should demand from the manager a report on the work done and an explanation why the part it has not been fulfilled." It was also proposed to give the manager a work plan for the year.
Managerial know-how was passed down from generation to generation in narrow circles of the managerial elite. A significant contribution to the development of managerial thought was made by the Italian statesman Machiavelli (1469-1527). He, in particular, said: “The mind of a ruler is first of all judged by what kind of people he brings closer to himself; if these are people who are loyal and capable, then you can always be sure of his wisdom, because he was able to recognize their abilities and keep their devotion ".
He also said: "There is one unmistakable way to find out what an assistant is worth. If an assistant cares more about himself than about the state, and in every business seeks his own benefit, he will never be a good servant to the sovereign." Machiavelli also owns this brilliant managerial idea: “Many people believe that some of the sovereigns, who are reputed to be wise, owe their glory not to themselves, but to the good advice of their associates, but this opinion is erroneous. For the rule, which knows no exception, says: who does not himself possess wisdom, it is useless to give good advice." Reforms played a significant role in Russia government controlled Peter I, which affected various areas of management activity. The recommendations to the production manager of that time are interesting: “At the end of each year, namely in the month of December, it is necessary for the manager to write statements about supplies and workers, of course others and why, no later than the 20th, in order to purchase supplies at fairs and about other things, you can judge and make a decision without wasting time. Management thought was further developed after the industrial revolution, which took place in Europe in the middle of the 18th century. The rapid development of production that followed it led to the introduction of an assembly combine and interchangeable parts of machines, the use (E. Whitney) of quality control methods, specialization of production workers (C. Babbage), etc. At different stages of the development of human society, attempts were made to systematize management activities or its components. We note in accordance with the main milestones. The first contribution to the systematization of managerial activity, the importance of which can hardly be underestimated, was made in ancient Sumer in the 5th millennium BC. is the introduction of writing.
For the first time, it became possible to transmit and accumulate information. This served as an incentive to intensify the management activities of that time. A class of priests-businessmen arose, on the one hand, who knew writing, and on the other hand, who took part in trade transactions and commercial reports, in the creation and streamlining of the control system for spontaneously developing trade relations in ancient Sumer.
During the reign of the Babylonian king Hammurabi (1792 - 1750 BC), the Code of State Administration Laws was developed and put into effect. In accordance with this Code of Laws, government in the state passed from a religious to a secular style of government. The control and responsibility for the performance of work was strengthened. During the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC), state management methods were combined with management, and above all with its control functions, in the sphere of production and construction.
Stages of development of managerial thought:
5000 - Sumerians - Writing, registration of facts
4000 - Egyptians - Recognition of the need for planning, organization and control
2600 - Egyptians - Decentralization in the organization of management
1800 - Hammurabi - Use of witnesses and written documents for control, establishment of a minimum wage, recognition of the inadmissibility of shifting responsibility
1491 - Jews - Concept of organization, scalar principle
600 - Nebuchadnezzar - Control of production and incentives through wages
400 - Socrates - Formulation of the principle of universality of management
400 - Xenophon - Recognition of management as a special art form
175 - Cat on - Use of job descriptions
20 - Jesus Christ - One Command Golden Rule Human Relations
1100 - Ghazali - Requirements for a manager 1835 - Marshall, Logman - Recognition and discussion of the relative importance of management
1881 - Joseph Wharton Designed for a college course in entrepreneurial management
1900 - Frederick W Taylor - Scientific management, systems approach, personnel management, the need for cooperation between labor and management, functional organization, evaluation
1916 - Henry Fayol - The first complete theory of management, its functions, principles, recognition of the need to teach management Alexander G Chern - The functional concept of management
1919 - Morris L Cook - Various uses of management
1927 - Elton Mayo - The sociological concept of group aspirations 1943 - Lindell Urwick - Bringing together and correlating management principles
1949 - Norbert Wiener - Development of systems analysis in information theory
1976 - Romary Stewart Alternative and limitation of manager's actions in various situations 1985 - Tom Peters - Attitude to consumers as people, and to the organization's personnel as an important resource for business development.
Taylor's Management Science.
But the first real breakthrough in the development of control theory was made thanks to the work of the American engineer Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). This was largely facilitated by the situation that had developed by the beginning of the 20th century. in USA. The United States of this period is characterized by the rapid development of industry. The railroad network turned the country into one huge labor market that needed effective management. Prospered, first of all, those enterprises in which entrepreneurs paid due attention to management methods. Nevertheless, managerial art came only with experience, and learning was carried out only on the basis of their own mistakes and finds of entrepreneurs. All this created the necessary prerequisites for the emergence of the science of management. The modern science of management begins with the release in 1911. Taylor's book Principles of Scientific Management. Taylor proposed a system of "scientific management", which he characterized as follows: "Science instead of traditional skills; harmony instead of contradictions; cooperation instead of individual work; maximum productivity instead of limitation of productivity; development of each individual worker to the maximum available to him productivity and maximum welfare."
Its main provisions can be formulated as follows:
1. Creation of a scientific foundation that replaces the old, traditional, practically established methods of work, scientific research of each of its elements.
2. Selection of workers based on scientific criteria, their training and education.
3. Cooperation between the administration and workers in the practical implementation of a scientifically developed system of labor organization.
4. Equal distribution of labor and responsibility between the administration and workers. His revolutionary proposals on the organization of production and labor in general and wages in particular are interesting: wages are charged to a person, not to a place; pricing should be based on accurate knowledge, not guesswork; rates based on accurate knowledge should be uniform; thanks to the rates thus fixed, commodities are produced cheaper, and workers receive higher wages than usual; wages based on accurate knowledge create better workers, enable them to earn more, eliminate the causes of deliberate procrastination in work, arouse the interest of workers and employers in cooperation. From a linear, like an army, organization system, when the worker received orders from a single boss, Taylor proposed moving to a system in which the work of the foreman and foreman was divided into eight parts and the worker, instead of one boss, directly communicated with eight "narrow" specialists who knew their area of work much more professionally. It led to a sharp increase in administrative and managerial personnel, but on the whole it was an undoubted step forward and provided a significant increase in labor productivity. Taylor's work was received with hostility. The unions saw Taylorism as a means of intensifying the exploitation of workers. There was a negative reaction on the part of large entrepreneurs, since the use of new system the organization of labor proposed by Taylor required the abandonment of the old, traditional, familiar methods and technologies of production management, the revision of one's own behavior, and significant efforts to introduce a new system. The first experiences in the implementation of the Taylor system at US enterprises were quite impressive. But a turning point in the recognition of the Taylor system was played by the conflict between the railroad companies, which were the pride of the country, and a group of firms that sent goods in 1910, which received wide public outcry. Railway companies, under the pretext of high wage costs, sought to increase tariffs, with which senders did not agree. Using the Taylor system, it was possible to show that the costs of railroad companies can be reduced by $ 1 million (in 1910 prices) daily. The railway companies were defeated in this dispute. This served as an incentive for a more attentive attitude on the part of broad business circles to Taylor's fundamentally new management ideas. The ideas of scientific management have been widely accepted. Already in 1912. in 55 business sectors, including transport and construction, scientific management methods were introduced. One of the main science of management of Taylor's provisions was that he first separated the process of planning work from the work itself. Thus, Taylor was the first to single out one of the main managerial functions. Taylor's followers also made a significant contribution to the development of scientific management methods. Thus, the Gilbreths developed a method for analyzing the worker's micro-movements, which is based on the film records of the worker's movements with the subsequent determination of their standard sequences and sets. They singled out 17 basic movements of the hand, called terbligs (Gilbreth in reverse reading). G. Gant introduced a linear schedule into management practice, which made it possible to plan and check the implementation of fairly complex work packages. The graph, or, as it is otherwise called, the Gantt chart, became the forerunner of the network schedules widely used today in the practice of planning, being their integral part. And Gantt charts are widely used in modern business scheduling.
Formulation of principles and goals of management
Emerson's Twelve Principles. The main direction of Emerson's work is devoted to increasing the productivity of not workers, but managers. He rightly believed that the main reason why natural wealth and human capabilities are squandered is improper organization. According to Emerson, the foreman does not work at the factory in order to relieve tension from the manager, but in order to direct the workers, the managing director exists to serve the managers, etc., i.e. for the first time he realized the true mission and purpose of managerial work. The twelve goals formulated by Emerson have not lost their relevance to this day. Let's remind them.
1. Clearly set goals. Properly oriented and coordinated goals of the participants in the production process can achieve tremendous results. Inconsistency of goals leads to large losses.
2. Common sense. The basis of the organization of production should not be the pursuit of tonnage, not the desire to invest more capital in business, but a reasonable organization of production, the solution of organizational problems on the basis of common sense.
3. Competent advice. Emerson proposed to organize at each enterprise a department that "would be engaged in developing recommendations for improving management in all departments." This position of Emerson is quite consistent with the understanding of the role of management in a modern enterprise.
4. Discipline. There must be instructions, each worker must know and follow them. Deviation from them is a step towards anarchy.
5. Fair treatment of staff. Workers should be provided with improved working conditions, increased wages, and continuous professional development. Good relations at work must be ensured. Workers must be carefully selected, taking into account the inner inclinations and abilities of the person.
6. Fast, reliable, complete, accurate and constant accounting. Emerson believed that only those who take into account the quantity of production, prices, efficiency, can achieve high productivity and fulfill other principles.
7. Dispatching. Dispatching is part of planning. Practice shows that it is better to schedule even unplanned work than to plan work and not schedule it.
8. Norms and schedules. Rationing allows you to determine the performance reserves and work on reducing losses. The definition of rational labor standards should be made on the basis of the timing of all operations, effective planning, the participation of specialists such as psychologists, physiologists, etc. Primitive piece-work, piece pay stimulates excessive effort of the worker and ultimately does not justify itself.
9. Normalization of conditions. Normalization of conditions is necessary for accurate and complete accounting, as well as for planning work. It provides the calculation of the future based on the knowledge of the present.
10. Rationing of operations. The normalization of operations contributes, on the one hand, to the standardization of production, which allows the introduction of automation of production, and on the other hand, the normalization of time for performing operations.
11. Written standard instructions. According to Emerson, a set of standard written instructions is a codification of the laws and practices of an enterprise. This is necessary so that the successes achieved in the enterprise are fixed in writing. The opinion that standard instructions kill the initiative is wrong. On the contrary, performing routine operations in the fastest and easiest way frees the brain to invent and develop new ways. Many of Emerson's propositions fit well with the bureaucratic organizational structure, first proposed by the German sociologist Max Weber.
12. Reward for performance. Lack of incentives and higher pay for better work leads to lower productivity. To stimulate employees, in addition to wages, it is advisable to use other forms. Fayol's principles of organization management.
The next breakthrough in the science of management is associated with the work of Henri Fayol (1841 - 1925). For 30 years, Fayol headed a major French steel and mining company. He took it on the verge of bankruptcy, and left it one of the most powerful French concerns. The combination of creative thought with vast practical experience and the possibilities of experiment in the field of organization management has become a significant milestone in the development of managerial thought. Fayol in his works was not limited to the framework of production, but extended his ideas to any organization that is the object of management. He gave a clear definition of the concept of "management": To manage means to lead an enterprise to its goal, extracting the maximum opportunities from all the resources at its disposal.
He singled out 6 areas of the enterprise that need to be managed:
1. technical (technological);
2. commercial (purchase, sale and exchange);
3. financial (search for capital and its efficient use);
4. protective (protection of property and personality);
5. accounting (inventory, balance sheets, costs, statistics);
6. administrative (affects only personnel, without directly affecting either materials or mechanisms).
Fayol formulated the principles of management, which he considered flexible, requiring creativity, and not absolute.
In the field of teaching the art of management, Fayol believed that for this it was far from enough to learn only the subtleties of engineering training. It is necessary to learn the professional ability to manage or, in modern terms, to learn management.
Fayol's principles of organization management.
1. Power is inseparable from responsibility. Those who give orders and directives must be held accountable for the consequences that follow.
2. Division of labor with specialization. For all types of labor, both managerial and technical, a division of labor is characteristic. This allows you to produce more and better with about the same effort.
3. Unity of command. An employee must receive instructions from one superior. Obviously, this principle contradicts Taylor's principle of multifunctional subordination. Although, most likely, these principles should complement each other.
4. Discipline. By discipline, Fayol understood respect for agreements designed to ensure obedience, diligence, energy, and outward display of respect. Discipline is mandatory for both ordinary workers and managers.
5. Unity of leadership. Fayol believed that "one leader and a single plan for a set of operations with a common goal" is needed. In other words, in each case, one head is needed, responsible for achieving the goal. Only the development of recommendations can be collective.
6. Subordination of individual interests to the general ones. The interest of an employee or a group of employees cannot prevail over the interests of the case. If there are differences within the team, the leader must ensure that a unified decision is made.
7. Reward. Fayol believed that remuneration should be fair and satisfy both the employee and the employer.
8. Centralization. Efficient production is ensured by a combination of division of labor and centralized management. The degree of centralization may vary depending on the size of the organization and the specifics of the field of activity. As a rule, in small companies the degree of centralization is higher; in larger ones, it weakens somewhat.
9. Hierarchy. Every organization should have a clearly defined "chain of command" - from the highest rank to the lowest. There is no need to break it unnecessarily. But if it is harmful, it is advisable to shorten it.
10. Order. Fayol believed that everything should have its place and everyone should be in their place. In other words, a clear alignment of forces and their clear interaction in the process of achieving the goal are assumed.
11. Justice. Loyalty and dedication of ordinary workers
should be provided with a kind and fair attitude from the management.
12. Resilience of staff. Staff turnover, as a rule, accompanies the insufficiently effective activity of the organization. In effective organizations, the composition of the staff is usually stable.
13. Initiative. The initiative contributes to a more complete realization of the potential of employees in the activities of the organization. Fayol urges managers, if possible, to give up the implementation of their own initiative in favor of the initiative of an employee with a lower rank.
14. Corporate spirit. When managing an organization, Fayol advises against adhering to the principle of "divide and conquer." Much more appropriate, he considers the principle of collectivism in the activities of the organization, ensuring the desire of the team to achieve a common goal.
