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People: Russians
Territory of settlement: the middle zone of Russia mainly, also the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia, the Far East, Ukraine, Belarus and all regions of Russia
Sedentary agriculture and pastoralism, crafts at a high level (for example, wood products, wooden construction). A cuisine with a predominance of flour dishes, for example, pancakes, Easter cakes, kulebyak. Gardening
Religion: orthodoxy
People: Tatars
Territory of settlement: Volga region, Ural, Siberia
Culture, main occupations and lifestyle features: cattle breeding in a semi-nomadic form (especially horse breeding), weaving, carpet weaving. Cuisine of dairy and meat dishes (koumiss, for example).
Religion: Islam
People: Bashkirs
Territory of settlement: Ural
Culture, main occupations and lifestyle features: semi-nomadic cattle breeding, beekeeping and forest beekeeping, (especially weapons, blacksmithing, felting, weaving, carpet production). Meat cuisine prevailed
Religion: Islam
People: Chuvash, Mordovians
Territory of settlement: Volga, Priokye
Culture, main occupations and lifestyle features: farmers, smelted steel, the skill of making knives.
Religion: pagans
People: Ukrainians
Territory of settlement: Left-bank Ukraine (annexed in 1654)
Culture, main occupations and lifestyle features: agriculture and settled pastoralism, handicrafts at a high level. Cuisine with a predominance of flour and vegetable dishes (dumplings, kulesh, borscht, uzvar). Gardening
Religion: orthodoxy
People: Mari (Cheremis)
Territory of settlement: Volga region, Priokye
Culture, main occupations and lifestyle features: beekeepers, forest gatherers (mushrooms and berries), peasants
Religion: pagans
People: Kalmyks
Territory of settlement: between the Yaik and Volga rivers (became subjects of Russia in 1655)
Culture, main occupations and lifestyle features: nomadic pastoralists
Religion: Islam, Buddhism
People: Buryats
Territory of settlement: Transbaikalia (joined in the 17th century)
Culture, main occupations and lifestyle features: nomadic pastoralists. Meat cuisine. Of the crafts, dressing of sheepskins, leather, felt, blacksmithing.
Religion: paganism, Buddhism
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Territory of settlement: Ural
Culture, main occupations and lifestyle features: nomadic pastoralists, hunters, beekeepers. They were known for the art of weaving. They lived in communities of relatives.
Religion: Orthodox and pagans
People: Karelians
Territory of settlement: Karelia
Culture, main occupations and lifestyle features: hunters, fishermen, lumberjacks, farmers. Almost never used the wheel.
Religion: Orthodox and Lutherans
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Territory of settlement: North Caucasus
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Culture, main occupations and lifestyle features: nomadic pastoralists (deer), taiga hunters, fishermen, fishing for furs, seals and walrus ivory. They mostly lived in portable prefabricated yurts, yarangas, tents, less often in huts.
Religion: pagans
A people living "against the sun, head to the Chumat cart, feet to the blue sea," as the old song says. Whitewashed huts surrounded by gardens, beautiful stove tiles and earthenware, bright, cheerful fairs - all these are recognizable signs of the rich traditional culture of Ukrainians...
Settlement and formation of an ethnos
A group of girls and married women in festive attire
In the south-west of Eastern Europe, "against the sun, head to the Chumatsky cart (Big Bear), feet to the blue sea," as the people sang, the ancient Slavic land of Ukraine is located.
The origin of the name in the meaning of "land, extreme" dates back to the time of the existence of the ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus. So in the XII-XIII centuries. called it the southern and southwestern lands - the right-bank Dnieper region: Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, Chernihiv-Severshchina, which became the center of the formation of the Ukrainian nationality. Subsequently, the name Ukraine was assigned to the entire ethnic territory.
Main occupation
The main occupation of Ukrainians - agriculture regulated the way of life of the peasant family and the community as a whole. Grain and products prepared from it (porridge, kutya, loaf) were present as attributes in almost all rituals of the calendar cycle and rituals associated with the human life cycle. Bread among Ukrainians, like many other peoples, was a symbol of hospitality. There was always bread and salt on the table in the hut. Eyewitnesses noted that the Ukrainians welcomed guests cordially and kindly, sparing nothing for the dear guest. Cattle breeding prevailed in the mountainous regions of the Carpathians.
Settlements and housing
Ukrainian villages were located near rivers, occupying land not suitable for arable land. Farm settlements were built in the steppe regions.
"Towel" - a towel. End of the 19th century. Kharkov province, Zmeevsky district
The main dwelling of the Ukrainians was a whitewashed adobe hut with a high hipped roof covered with straw or reeds, the edges of which protruded significantly above the walls, protecting the inhabitants of the hut from the cold in winter and from the heat in summer. For additional insulation in winter, the walls of the hut were lined with straw. Clean, whitewashed huts were almost always surrounded by gardens, and a light wattle fence and solid gates knocked together from poles made it possible to see the yard and its inhabitants.
The hostess and her daughters whitewashed the hut after each rainstorm, and also three times during the year: for Easter, Trinity and Intercession.
The interior of the house
Painted stove and painting on the wall near the stove
The stove occupied almost a quarter of the hut and was located in the left corner from the entrance. This corner was called "baking", and the empty place under the stove - "pidpiccha" - served to store fuel or a chicken cage was placed there - "heap".
Opposite the stove corner was a red corner - "pokuttya". Here on the shelves - goddesses stood icons called blessed, as they blessed the owner, mistress and their sons before the wedding. The icons were covered with patterned towels - "gods".
The corner to the right of the door, called "deaf", had an exclusively economic purpose. The space above the door and the upper part of the blind corner was occupied by a shelf - "police", on which stood spare pots, turned upside down. Closer to the corner, numerous women's jewelry was stored in earthenware. Below were shelves with the best tableware placed in a conspicuous place: painted glazed clay and wooden bowls, spoons, plates and flasks.
Hutsul ceramics
Ceramic bowls. Poltava province, Zenkovsky district, metro station Opashnya.
The natural and geographical conditions of the Carpathian region predetermined the originality of the culture of its population, known as the Rusyns, or Hutsuls. Despite the fact that this group of the Ukrainian people lived apart from it due to territorial and political alienation, it did not lose cultural and historical unity with its ethnic group. The Hutsul region was famous for its ceramic products.
A special impression on entering the Hutsul hut was made by a stove, the inner part of the chimney of which - a fireplace - was lined with tiles - "kahls". The fireplace consists of two or three tiers of tiles, closed in the upper and lower parts by rows of narrow cornices. The upper edge of the fireplace was completed by two or three pediments - "concealed" and "bumps" at an angle. The tiles depicted scenes from the life of the Hutsuls, churches, crosses, faces of saints, the Austrian coat of arms, and flowers.
Vessel. Eastern Galicia, p. Pistyn. End of the 19th century. Ukrainians are Hutsuls
The decoration of the stove fireplace was consonant with the "mysnik" - a cabinet of three or four shelves, placed in the wall between the door to the hut and the side wall, and the "mysnik" - a shelf above the door where there were pottery: "gleks" ("dzbanks"), "chersaki" (pots), bathhouses, vessels for drinks - kalachi, "splashing", bowls, etc. The most elegant bowls, serving exclusively as interior decoration, were placed on the "namysnik", which, for the same reason, was decorated with carvings and burnt patterns.
Clay products attracted attention with the perfection of forms, variety of decor and colors- brown, yellow and green. All products were covered with glaze, which shone, creating an atmosphere of festivity and elegance in the hut even on cloudy days.
Ceramics were made by Hutsul potters from Kosovo and Pistyn. The most famous of them are: I. Baranbk, O. Bakhmatyuk, P. Tsvilyk, P. Koshak. As a rule, all of them were hereditary potters who embodied in their products not only the best achievements of their predecessors, but, of course, revealed their individuality.
Despite the fact that the main occupations of the Hutsuls were cattle breeding and, first of all, sheep breeding, as well as harvesting and rafting of timber, many of them were also engaged in crafts, especially those that lived in towns and had neither land nor livestock. For a Hutsul girl, there was nothing more honorable than to marry an artisan.
Ukrainian Fair
Fair in the village of Yankovtsy. Poltava province, Lubensky district. Ukrainians.
Fairs were held in most Ukrainian villages on major church holidays. The busiest of them took place in autumn, after the harvest. The marketplace was located on the temple square or on a pasture outside the village.
The fair for the peasants was a kind of "club" where social connections and acquaintances were maintained. The fair rows were located in strict sequence: in one row they traded pottery, factory utensils and icons, grocery and tea shops were also located here; in another row - manufactory, haberdashery, caps, women's scarves, shoes; in the next - wood products - wheels, arcs, chests, etc.; in the latter - tar and fish.
Separately, there were places where cattle and horses were sold. Gypsies acted as mediators here. After a successful sale and purchase, it was common to drink magarych: “The beggars changed crutches, and even then they drank magarych for three days,” as the people said.
At fairs, wandering gymnasts or comedians amused the people, but more often performers of folk songs to the accompaniment of a lyre or blind musicians who played the harmonium. The trade lasted three or four hours, then everything was cleaned up, and by evening there was not a trace left of the motley noisy crowd and crowds, except for the fair's rubbish. The big fair lasted two or three days.
More than once suffered the pangs of political self-determination. In the middle of the 17th century, it, like today, rushed between the West and the East, constantly changing the vector of development. It would be nice to recall what such a policy cost the state and people of Ukraine. So, Ukraine, XVII century.
Why did Khmelnitsky need an alliance with Moscow?
In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky defeated the Polish troops sent against him three times: near Zhovti Vody, near Korsun and near Pilyavtsy. As the war flared up and military victories became more and more significant, the ultimate goal of the struggle also changed. Having started the war by demanding limited Cossack autonomy in the Dnieper region, Khmelnytsky had already fought for the liberation of the entire Ukrainian people from Polish captivity, and dreams of creating an independent Ukrainian state on the territory liberated from the Poles no longer seemed unrealizable.
The defeat near Berestechko in 1651 sobered Khmelnitsky a little. He realized that Ukraine was still weak, and alone in the war with Poland it might not survive. Hetman began to look for an ally, or rather, a patron. The choice of Moscow as a "big brother" was not predetermined at all. Khmelnitsky, together with the foremen, seriously considered options to become an ally of the Crimean Khan, a vassal of the Turkish Sultan, or return to the Commonwealth as a confederal component of a common state. The choice, as we already know, was made in favor of the Moscow Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.
Did Moscow really need Ukraine?
Unlike current situation, Moscow did not at all seek to lure Ukraine into its arms. To take Ukrainian separatists into citizenship meant an automatic declaration of war on the Commonwealth. And Poland of the 17th century is a large European state by those standards, which included vast territories that are now part of the Baltic republics, Belarus and Ukraine. Poland had an impact on European politics: not even 50 years had passed before its jullners took Moscow and put their protege on the throne in the Kremlin.
And the Moscow kingdom of the 17th century is not the Russian Empire of the beginning of the 20th century. The Baltic States, Ukraine, the Caucasus, Central Asia are still foreign territories, and the horse has not yet rolled in annexed Siberia. People are still alive who remember the nightmare of the Time of Troubles, when the very existence of Russia as an independent state was at stake. In general, the war promised to be long, with an unclear outcome.
In addition, Moscow fought with Sweden for access to the Baltic and counted on Poland as a future ally. In short, besides a headache, taking Ukraine under one's hand promised absolutely nothing to the Muscovite tsar. Khmelnitsky sent the first letter with a request to take Ukraine into citizenship to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in 1648, but for 6 years the tsar and the boyars refused all letters of the Ukrainian hetman. Convened in 1651 to make a decision, the Zemsky Sobor spoke out, as they would say today, in favor of the territorial integrity of the Polish state.
The situation is changing
After the victory at Berestechko, the Poles went to Ukraine on a punitive campaign. The Crimeans took the side of the Polish crown. Villages were burning, Poles were executing participants in recent battles, Tatars were collecting loads for sale. Famine began in the devastated Ukraine. The Moscow tsar abolished customs duties on grain exported to Ukraine, but this did not save the situation. The villagers who survived the Polish executions, Tatar raids and famine left in droves for Muscovy and Moldavia. Volyn, Galicia, Bratslavshchina lost up to 40% of their population. Khmelnitsky's ambassadors went to Moscow again with requests for help and protection.
Under the hand of the Moscow Tsar
In such a situation, on October 1, 1653, the Zemsky Sobor made a fateful decision for Ukraine to accept it as a subject, and on October 23 declared war on Poland. By the end of 1655, by joint efforts, all Ukraine and Galician Rus were liberated from the Poles (which the Galicians cannot forgive Russia to this day).
Ukraine, taken under the sovereign's hand, was not occupied or simply annexed. The state retained its administrative structure, its judicial proceedings independent of Moscow, the election of the hetman, colonels, foremen and city government, the Ukrainian gentry and laity retained all the property, privileges and liberties granted to them by the Polish authorities. In practice, Ukraine was part of the Muscovite state as an autonomous entity. A strict ban was introduced only on foreign policy activities.
parade of ambition
In 1657, Bohdan Khmelnitsky died, leaving to his successors a huge state with a certain degree of independence, protected from external intervention by the Ukrainian-Moscow treaty. And what did the pan-colonels do? That's right, the division of power. Ivan Vygovskoy, elected hetman at the Chigirin Rada in 1657, enjoyed support on the right bank, but had no support among the population of the left bank. The reason for the dislike was the pro-Western orientation of the newly elected hetman. (Oh, how familiar!) An uprising broke out on the left bank, the leaders were the ataman of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, Yakov Barabash, and the Poltava colonel Martyn Pushkar.
Problematic Ukraine
To cope with the opposition, Vygovskoy called for help ... Crimean Tatars! After the suppression of the rebellion, the Krymchaks began to rush throughout Ukraine, collecting prisoners for the slave market in Cafe (Feodosia). Hetman's rating dropped to zero. In search of the truth, offended by Vygovsky, foremen and colonels often frequented Moscow in search of the truth, bringing with them, from which the tsar and boyars were dizzy: taxes are not collected, 60,000 gold pieces that Moscow sent for the maintenance of registered Cossacks disappeared to no one knows where (does it remind you of anything?) , the hetman cuts off the heads of obstinate colonels and centurions.
Treason
To restore order, the tsar sent an expeditionary corps under the command of Prince Trubetskoy to Ukraine, which was defeated near Konotop by the combined Ukrainian-Tatar army. Along with the news of the defeat, news of Vygovsky's open treason comes to Moscow. The hetman concluded an agreement with Poland, according to which Ukraine returns to the bosom of the Commonwealth, and in return it provides troops for the war with Moscow and strengthening the position of the Ukrainian hetman. (The Gadyach Treaty of 1658) The news that Vygovskoy had also sworn allegiance to the Crimean Khan did not surprise anyone in Moscow.
New hetman, new treaty
The treaty concluded by Vyhovsky did not find support among the people (the memory of the Polish order was still fresh), the suppressed rebellion flared up with renewed vigor. The last supporters leave the hetman. Under the pressure of the "foreman" (leading elite), he renounces the mace. To put out the flames of the civil war, Bogdan Khmelnytsky's son Yuriy is elected hetman, hoping that everyone will follow the son of a national hero. Yuriy Khmelnytsky goes to Moscow to ask for help for Ukraine, bled white by the civil war.
In Moscow, the delegation was met without enthusiasm. The betrayal of the hetman and colonels who swore allegiance to the tsar, the death of the troops specifically spoiled the atmosphere at the negotiations. According to the terms of the new agreement, the autonomy of Ukraine was curtailed, in order to control the situation in large cities, military garrisons from Moscow archers were stationed.
New betrayal
In 1660, a detachment under the command of the boyar Sheremetev set out from Kyiv. (Russia, having declared war on Poland in 1654, still could not end it.) Yuri Khmelnitsky with his army hurries to help, but hurries in such a way that he does not have time to go anywhere. Near Slobodishche, he stumbles upon the Polish crown army, from which he is defeated and ... concludes a new agreement with the Poles. Ukraine returns to Poland (however, there is no talk of any autonomy anymore) and undertakes to send an army for the war with Russia.
The Left Bank, which does not want to fall under Poland, chooses its hetman, Yakov Somko, who raises Cossack regiments for the war against Yuri Khmelnitsky and sends ambassadors to Moscow with requests for help.
Ruina (ukr.) - complete collapse, devastation
You can go on and on. But the picture will be endlessly repeated: more than once the colonels will raise riots for the right to possess the hetman's mace, and more than once they will run from one camp to another. The right bank and the left bank, choosing their hetmans, will endlessly fight against each other. This period entered the history of Ukraine as "Runa". (Very eloquent!) By signing new treaties (with Poland, Crimea or Russia), the hetmans each time paid for their military support with political, economic and territorial concessions. In the end, only memory remained of the former "independence".
After the betrayal of Hetman Mazepa, Peter destroyed the last remnants of Ukraine's independence, and the hetmanate itself, breathing its last breath, was abolished in 1781, when Little Russia was extended general position about the provinces. This is how the attempts of the Ukrainian elite to sit on two chairs at the same time (or alternately) ended ingloriously. The chairs parted, Ukraine fell and broke into several ordinary Russian provinces.
Problem of choice
For the sake of fairness, it should be said that for the Ukrainian people the problem of choosing between the West and the East has never existed. Enthusiastically accepting every step of rapprochement with Russia, the villagers and ordinary Cossacks always met with a sharp negative reaction to all attempts of their panship to go over to the camp of her enemies. Neither Vygovskoy, nor Yuri Khmelnitsky, nor Mazepa were able to gather a truly popular army under their banners, like Bogdan Khmelnitsky.
Will history repeat itself?
According to knowledgeable people, history repeats itself all the time, and there is nothing under the sun that did not exist before. The current situation in Ukraine is painfully reminiscent of the events of more than three hundred years ago, when the country, like today, faced a difficult choice between the West and the East. To predict how everything can end, it is enough to remember how everything ended 350 years ago. Will the current Ukrainian elite have the wisdom not to plunge the country, like its predecessors, into chaos and anarchy, followed by a complete loss of independence?
Slipy saying: "Let's go."
In the XIV century, the territory of Southern Rus' came under the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Poland and Hungary. Crimea, previously under the influence of Byzantium and Rus', fell into the hands of the Tatars. In the XVI-XVII centuries, a confrontation for the Ukrainian lands unfolded between the Polish-Lithuanian state, the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Turkish-Tatar forces. The conquest by Moscow in 1500-1503 of the northern principalities belonging to Lithuania, with a center in Chernigov, increased the attraction of a part of the Orthodox Ukrainian population to Muscovy.
Since the time of the Union of Lublin (1569), Ukraine has been almost entirely under the administrative control of the Commonwealth. At the same time, significant differences remained between Galicia, located in the west of Ukraine, which already belonged to Poland in the 14th century, and the regions in the east and south, which were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but to a greater extent retained their originality, and above all adherence to Orthodoxy. While the nobility was gradually incorporated into the ranks of the gentry of the Kingdom of Poland and converted to Catholicism, the peasant population everywhere retained its Orthodox faith and language. Part of the peasantry was enslaved. Significant changes took place among the urban population, which was partially forced out by Poles, Germans, Jews and Armenians. Left its mark on the political history of Ukraine and the European Reformation, which was defeated in the Polish-Lithuanian state. The Catholic elite tried to solve the problem of the Orthodox population with the help of the Union of Brest in 1596, which subordinated the Orthodox Church of Ukraine to the Pope. As a result, the Uniate Church arose, which also has a number of differences from Orthodoxy in ritual. Along with Uniatism and Catholicism, Orthodoxy is preserved. The Kiev Collegium (higher theological educational institution) becomes the center of the revival of Ukrainian culture.
The growing oppression of the gentry forced the Ukrainian peasant masses to flee to the south and southeast of the region. In the lower reaches of the Dnieper, beyond the Dnieper rapids, at the beginning of the 16th century, a Cossack community arose, which was in relative dependence on the Polish-Lithuanian kingdom. In terms of its socio-political organization, this community was similar to the formations of Russian Cossacks on the Don, Volga, Yaik and Terek; between the military organization of the Dnieper Cossacks - the Zaporozhian Sich (established in 1556) - and the Russian Cossack formations, there was a relationship of brotherhood in arms, and all of them, including the Zaporozhian Sich, were the most important political and military factor on the border with the Steppe. It was this Ukrainian Cossack society that played a decisive role in the political development of Ukraine in the middle of the 17th century. At the beginning of the 17th century, under the leadership of Hetman Sahaydachny (hetmanship intermittently in 1605-1622), the Sich turned into a powerful military-political center, generally acting in line with Polish politics. The Sich was a republic headed by a hetman, who relied on the Cossack foremen (the upper ranks opposed to the "bad").
In the 16th-17th centuries, the Cossacks responded to the desire of the Poles to establish more complete control over the Sich with a series of powerful uprisings against the gentry and the Catholic clergy. In 1648, the uprising was led by Bogdan Khmelnitsky. As a result of several successful campaigns, the army of B. Khmelnytsky managed to spread the influence of the Zaporozhian Sich to most of Ukraine. However, the emerging Ukrainian state formation was weak and could not stand against Poland alone. Before B. Khmelnitsky and officers of the highest Cossack circle, the question arose of choosing allies. The initial rate of B. Khmelnitsky on the Crimean Khanate (1648) did not materialize, since the Crimean Tatars were inclined to separate negotiations with the Poles.
The union with the Moscow state after several years of hesitation of Tsar Alexei (unwillingness to enter into a new conflict with the Commonwealth) was concluded in 1654 in Pereyaslavl (Pereyaslav Rada). The Cossack army, as the main military-political institution of Ukraine, was guaranteed its privileges, its own right and legal proceedings, self-government with free elections of the hetman, and limited foreign policy activity. The privileges and rights of self-government were guaranteed to the Ukrainian nobility, metropolitan and cities of Ukraine who swore allegiance to the Russian Tsar.
The war between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian state that began in 1654 had a negative impact on the alliance of the Dnieper Cossacks with the Russian Tsar. In the conditions of the armistice between Moscow and the Polish-Lithuanian state, B. Khmelnitsky went to rapprochement with Sweden, Brandenburg and Transylvania, which entered into an armed struggle with the Poles. At the same time, the role of the Cossacks of B. Khmelnitsky was very significant. So, at the beginning of 1657, the 30,000th army of the Kyiv foreman Zhdanovich, uniting with the army of the Transylvanian prince Gyorgy II Rakoczy, reached Warsaw. However, this success could not be consolidated.
In the middle of the 17th century, a fierce struggle for the territory of the Sich between Russia, Poland and the Ottoman Empire unfolded. In this struggle, the hetmans occupied various positions, sometimes acting independently. Hetman I. Vyhovsky (1657-1659) concluded an alliance with Sweden, which dominated Poland at that time (anticipating the policy of Mazepa). Having defeated the pro-Russian forces near Poltava in 1658, Vyhovsky concluded the Treaty of Godiach with Poland, which assumed the return of Ukraine under the rule of the Polish king as the Grand Duchy of Russia. Near Konotop, Vyhovsky's troops in 1659 defeated the troops of the Muscovite kingdom and its allies. However, the next Rada supported the pro-Russian Y. Khmelnitsky (1659-1663), who replaced Vyhovsky and concluded a new Pereyaslav Treaty with Russia. Under this treaty, Ukraine became an autonomous part of the Muscovite kingdom.
However, after failures in the war with Poland in 1660, the Slobodischensky Treaty of 1660 was concluded, which turned Ukraine into an autonomous part of the Commonwealth. Left-bank Ukraine did not recognize the agreement and swore allegiance to the tsar. Not wanting to continue the civil war, Y. Khmelnitsky took the monastic vows, and P. Teterya (1663-1665) was elected hetman of the Right Bank, and I. Bryukhovetsky (1663-1668), who was replaced by D. Mnogoreshny (1669-1672) years).
The uprising of 1648-1654 and the subsequent period of unrest (“Ruin”) is sometimes interpreted in historiography as an early bourgeois or national revolution (by analogy with other revolutions of the 16th-17th centuries).
The Andrusovo truce between Moscow and the Poles (1667) institutionalized the split of Ukraine: the regions on the left bank of the Dnieper were ceded to the Muscovite state, and the right-bank ones again fell under the political and administrative control of the Poles. This division, as well as the protectorate of both powers established over the Zaporozhian Sich under the Andrusov Treaty, caused numerous uprisings of the Cossacks, who unsuccessfully tried to achieve the unification of both parts of Ukraine.
In the 1660s-1670s, a fierce civil war was going on in Ukraine, in which Poland, Russia, and then the Ottoman Empire took part, under the protection of which the right-bank hetman P. Doroshenko (1665-1676) passed. This struggle ravaged the Right Bank, caused great damage to the left bank and ended with the division of Ukraine under the Treaty of Bakhchisaray in 1681 between Russia and Turkey and the Crimean Khanate and the “Eternal Peace” of Russia with Poland in 1686. The territories of the three states converged in the region of Kyiv, which remained with Russia and the Hetman Ukraine, which was part of it (hetman I. Samoylovich, 1672-1687).
Ukraine was divided into a number of territories:
1) the left-bank Hetmanship, which retained significant autonomy within Russia;
2) Zaporizhzhya Sich, which retained autonomy in relation to the hetman;
3) the right-bank Hetmanate, which retained autonomy within the Commonwealth (by the 1680s, it was actually divided between Poland and Turkey);
4) Galicia, integrated into the Kingdom of Poland from the end of the 14th century;
5) Hungarian Carpathian Ukraine;
6) Bukovina and Podolia, which belonged to the Ottoman Empire (until 1699);
7) areas of the Steppe and neutral territories cleared of the Ukrainian population, up to the Kiev region;
8) Sloboda Ukraine - the eastern regions of the left-bank Hetmanate, whose regiments were directly subordinate to the Moscow governors in Belgorod.
The institutions of Moscow control over the left-bank Hetmanate and Sloboda Ukraine, which retained significant autonomy, were: the Little Russian Order established in 1663, small Russian garrisons in individual Ukrainian cities. Between the Hetmanate and the Muscovite state (in the pre-Petrine period) there was a customs border.
A more rigid institutional consolidation of the Left Bank and Sloboda Ukraine, and then part of the Right-Bank Ukraine, occurs in the reign of Peter I. In 1708, the Ukrainian hetman Ivan Mazepa entered into an alliance with Peter's military and political opponent, King Charles XII of Sweden. In response, the Russian army burned down the hetman's capital, Baturyn. The victory of Peter I over the Swedes near Poltava (1709) meant a significant limitation of the broad political autonomy of Ukraine. Institutionally, this was expressed in the expansion of the administrative and legal competence of the Little Russian Collegium, which managed affairs in Ukraine, the elimination of the customs border, the growth of economic withdrawals of surplus product from Ukrainian territories for the needs of the expanding Russian Empire.
The stabilization of the institution of hetmanship under Empress Elizaveta Petrovna gave way to a sharp policy of centralization during the reign of Catherine II. In 1765, Sloboda Ukraine became an ordinary province of the Russian Empire. In 1764, the institute of hetmanship was liquidated, and in the early 1780s, the Russian system of administration and tax collection was introduced. In 1775, Russian troops destroyed the Zaporizhzhya Sich, part of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks moved to the Kuban, and part of the Cossacks in the more northern regions passed into the category of state peasants. Simultaneously with the distribution of land to Russian landowners, a part of the Cossack elite was included in the Russian nobility. The territory of Ukraine became known as Little Russia. In 1783, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.
As a result of the three divisions of the Commonwealth (1772, 1793 and 1795), almost the entire territory of Ukraine became part of the Russian Empire. Galicia, Transcarpathia and Bukovina became parts of the Austrian Empire.
