The hypothalamus is one of the most important organs in the human endocrine system. It is located near the base of the brain. It is responsible for the correct functioning of the pituitary gland and normal metabolism. Hormones produced in the hypothalamus are very important for the body. They are peptides responsible for various processes occurring in the body.

What hormones are produced by the hypothalamus?

In the hypothalamus there are nerve cells that are responsible for the production of all vital hormones. They are called neurosecretory cells. At a certain moment, they receive afferent nerve impulses supplied by different parts of the nervous system. Axons of neurosecretory cells end on blood vessels, where they form axo-vasal synapses. Through the latter, the produced hormones are released.

The hypothalamus produces liberins and statins - the so-called releasing hormones. These substances are needed to regulate the hormonal activity of the pituitary gland. Statins are responsible for a decrease in the synthesis of independent elements, and liberins are responsible for its increase.

To date, the following hormones of the hypothalamus are best studied:

1. Gonadoliberins. These hormones are responsible for increasing the amount of sex hormones produced. They also take part in maintaining a normal menstrual cycle and the formation of sexual desire. Under the influence of a large amount of luliberin - one of the varieties of gonadoliberins - a mature egg is released. If these hormones are not enough, a woman may develop.
2. Somatoliberin. These hormones, produced by the hypothalamus, are needed to release growth substances. They should be most actively developed in childhood and youth. In case of a shortage of the hormone, dwarfism can develop.
3. Corticoliberin. Responsible for more intensive production of adrenocorticotropic hormones in the pituitary gland. If the hormone is not produced in the required amount, adrenal insufficiency develops in most cases.
4. Prolactoliberin. This substance should develop especially actively during pregnancy and throughout the entire period of lactation. This releasing factor increases the amount of prolactin produced and promotes the development of ducts in the mammary gland.
5. Dopamine, melanostatin and somatostatin. They suppress tropic hormones produced in the pituitary gland.
6. Melanoliberin. It takes part in the production of melanin and the reproduction of pigment cells.
7. Thyroliberin. It is necessary for the release of thyroid-stimulating hormones and an increase in the blood.

Regulation of hypothalamic hormone secretion

The nervous system is responsible for regulating hormone secretion. The more hormones produced by the target gland, the less secretion of tropic hormones. This connection can act not only depressingly. In some cases, it changes the effect of hypothalamic hormones on cells located in the pituitary gland.

Hypothalamic hormones are the most important regulatory hormones produced by the hypothalamus. All hypothalamic hormones have a peptide structure and are divided into 3 subclasses: releasing hormones stimulate the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones, statins inhibit the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones, and posterior pituitary hormones are traditionally called posterior pituitary hormones by the place of their storage and release, although actually produced by the hypothalamus.

Hormones of the hypothalamus play one of the leading roles in the activity of the entire human body. These hormones are produced in a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. Without exception, all of these substances are peptides. At the same time, all these hormones are divided into three types: releasing hormones, statins and hormones of the posterior pituitary gland. The subclass of hypothalamic releasing hormones includes the following hormones:

corticotropin-releasing hormone (corticoliberin)

somatotropin-releasing hormone (somatoliberin)

thyrotropin-releasing hormone (thyroliberin)

prolactotropin-releasing hormone (prolactoliberin)

lulitropin-releasing hormone (luliberin)

follitropin-releasing hormone (folliberin)

melanotropin-releasing hormone (melanoliberin)

A subclass of statins includes:

somatostatin

prolactostatin

melanostatin

The subclass of posterior pituitary hormones includes:

antidiuretic hormone, or vasopressin

oxytocin

Vasopressin and oxytocin are synthesized in the hypothalamus and then released to the pituitary gland. Secretion regulation function.

The pituitary gland (lat. hypophysis - a process; synonyms: lower cerebral appendage, pituitary gland) - a brain appendage in the form of a rounded formation located on the lower surface of the brain in a bone pocket called the Turkish saddle, produces hormones that affect growth, metabolism and reproductive function. It is the central organ of the endocrine system; closely connected and interacts with the hypothalamus.

In the anterior pituitary gland, somatotropocytes produce somatotropin, which activates the mitotic activity of somatic cells and protein biosynthesis; lactotropocytes produce prolactin, which stimulates the development and function of the mammary glands and the corpus luteum; gonadotropocytes - follicle-stimulating hormone (stimulation of the growth of ovarian follicles, regulation of steroidogenesis) and luteinizing hormone (stimulation of ovulation, formation of the corpus luteum, regulation of steroidogenesis); thyrotropocytes - thyroid-stimulating hormone (stimulation of the secretion of iodine-containing hormones by thyrocytes); corticotropocytes - adrenocorticotropic hormone (stimulation of the secretion of corticosteroids in the adrenal cortex). In the middle lobe of the pituitary gland, melanotropocytes produce melanocyte-stimulating hormone (regulation of melanin metabolism); lipotropocytes - lipotropin (regulation of fat metabolism). In the posterior pituitary, pituitocytes activate vasopressin and oxytocin in storage bodies. With hypofunction of the anterior pituitary gland in childhood, dwarfism is observed. With hyperfunction of the anterior pituitary gland, gigantism develops in childhood.

Diseases and pathologies[edit | edit wiki text]

Acromegaly

Itsenko-Cushing's disease, not to be confused with Itsenko-Cushing's syndrome, is an independent disease of the adrenal glands.

diabetes insipidus

Sheehan syndrome

Pituitary dwarfism

Pituitary hypothyroidism

Pituitary hypogonadism

Hyperprolactinemia

pituitary hyperthyroidism

Gigantism

Dwarfism

Itsenko-Cushing's disease is a neuroendocrine disease characterized by increased production of hormones of the adrenal cortex, which is caused by excessive secretion of ACTH by cells of hyperplastic or tumor tissue of the pituitary gland (in 90% of microadenoma).

Acromegaly (from Greek ἄκρος - limb and Greek μέγας - large) - a disease associated with dysfunction of the anterior pituitary gland (adenohypophysis); accompanied by an increase (expansion and thickening) of the hands, feet, skull, especially its front part, etc. Acromegaly usually occurs after the completion of the growth of the organism; develops gradually over many years. It is caused by the production of an excessive amount of somatotropic hormone. A similar violation of the pituitary gland at an early age causes gigantism. With acromegaly, headaches, fatigue, weakening of mental abilities, visual impairment, often impotence in men and cessation of menstruation in women are noted. Treatment - surgery on the pituitary gland, radiotherapy, the use of hormonal drugs that reduce the production of growth hormone (bromocriptine, lanreotide).

Diabetes insipidus (diabetes insipidus; diabetes insipidus syndrome; lat. diabetes insipidus) is a rare disease (about 3 per 100,000) associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus or pituitary gland, which is characterized by polyuria (6-15 liters of urine per day) and polydipsia (thirst).

Diabetes insipidus is a chronic disease that occurs in both sexes in both adults and children. Most often, young people get sick - from 18 to 25 years. Known cases of disease in children of the first year of life

Sheehan's syndrome (postpartum pituitary infarction, postpartum pituitary necrosis) - occurs in cases of complications of the birth act with massive bleeding with the development of arterial hypotension. During pregnancy, the size of the pituitary gland increases, but its blood supply does not increase. Against the background of arterial hypotension developed as a result of postpartum hemorrhage, the blood supply to the pituitary gland sharply decreases - hypoxia and necrosis of the pituitary gland develop. The entire adenohypophysis (hypopituitarism) may be involved in the process, but lactotrophic cells are most often damaged. Due to the lack of prolactin, lactation stops - breastfeeding becomes impossible. Sheehan's syndrome is the second most common cause of hypopituitarism in adults.

Dwarfism is an abnormally small height of an adult: less than 147 cm. Dwarfism is associated with a lack of somatotropin growth hormone or a violation of its conformation (structure)

Hyperprolactinemia is a condition in which the level of the hormone prolactin in the blood is elevated.

Pathological[edit | edit wiki text]

Main source:

Diseases of the hypothalamus Tumors (craniopharyngioma, germinoma, hamartoma, glioma, tumor of the third ventricle of the brain, metastases)

Infiltrative diseases (Histiocytosis X, Sarcoidosis, Tuberculosis)

brain pseudotumor

Arteriovenous defects

Irradiation of the hypothalamic region

Injury to the pituitary stalk (Pituitary stalk transection syndrome)

Diseases of the pituitary gland Prolactinoma

Mixed adenoma (STG-, prolactin-secreting)

Pituitary adenomas (STH-, or ACTH-, or TSH-, or gonadotropin-secreting, clinically hormonally inactive adenoma)

Syndrome of the "empty" Turkish saddle

Craniopharyngioma

intrasellar cyst

Rathke's pouch cyst

intrasellar germinoma

intrasellar meningioma

Gigantism (from other Greek γίγας, r.p. γίγαντος - “giant, giant, giant”) - a very large growth that occurs in individuals with open epiphyseal growth zones (in children and adolescents) with excessive secretion of the anterior pituitary gland hormone growth (STG). It is characterized by a comparatively proportional epiphyseal (in length) and periosteal (in thickness) increase in bones, soft tissues and organs exceeding physiological boundaries. Growth in men above 200 cm is considered pathological, in women - above 190 cm. After ossification of the epiphyseal cartilages (closure of growth zones), gigantism (the disease) passes into acromegaly.

Hormones of the anterior pituitary gland.

The adenohypophysis produces the following hormones:

adrenocorticotropic (ACTH), or corticotropin;

thyrotropic (TSH), or thyrotropin,

gonadotropic: follicle-stimulating (FSH), or follitropin, and luteinizing (LH), or lutropin,

somatotropic (STG), or growth hormone, or somatotropin,

prolactin.

The first 4 hormones regulate the functions of the so-called peripheral endocrine glands. Somatotropin and prolactin themselves act on target tissues.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), or corticotropin, has a stimulating effect on the adrenal cortex. To a greater extent, its influence is expressed on the fascicular zone, which leads to an increase in the formation of glucocorticoids, to a lesser extent - on the glomerular and reticular zones, therefore, it does not have a significant effect on the production of mineralocorticoids and sex hormones. By increasing protein synthesis (cAMP-dependent activation), hyperplasia of the adrenal cortex occurs. ACTH enhances the synthesis of cholesterol and the rate of formation of pregnenolone from cholesterol. The extra-adrenal effects of ACTH are to stimulate lipolysis (mobilizes fats from fat depots and promotes fat oxidation), increased secretion of insulin and somatotropin, accumulation of glycogen in muscle cells, hypoglycemia, which is associated with increased secretion of insulin, increased pigmentation due to the action of melanophores on pigment cells .

ACTH production is subject to daily periodicity, which is associated with the rhythmicity of the release of corticoliberin. The maximum concentrations of ACTH are observed in the morning at 6 - 8 o'clock, the minimum - from 18 to 23 o'clock. The formation of ACTH is regulated by corticoliberin in the hypothalamus. The secretion of ACTH increases with stress, as well as under the influence of factors that cause stressful conditions: cold, pain, exercise, emotions. Hypoglycemia contributes to an increase in ACTH production. Inhibition of ACTH production occurs under the influence of the glucocorticoids themselves through the feedback mechanism.

Excess ACTH leads to hypercortisolism, i.e. increased production of corticosteroids, mainly glucocorticoids. This disease develops with pituitary adenoma and is called Itsenko-Cushing's disease. Its main manifestations are: hypertension, obesity, which has a local character (face and trunk), hyperglycemia, a decrease in the body's immune defenses.

Lack of the hormone leads to a decrease in the production of glucocorticoids, which is manifested by metabolic disorders and a decrease in the body's resistance to various environmental influences.

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), or thyrotropin, activates the function thyroid gland, causes hyperplasia of its glandular tissue, stimulates the production of thyroxine and triiodothyronine. The formation of thyrotropin is stimulated by thyroliberin of the hypothalamus, and inhibited by somatostatin. The secretion of thyroliberin and thyrotropin is regulated by iodine-containing thyroid hormones by a feedback mechanism. The secretion of thyrotropin also increases when the body is cooled, which leads to an increase in the production of thyroid hormones and an increase in heat. Glucocorticoids inhibit the production of thyrotropin. The secretion of thyrotropin is also inhibited during trauma, pain, and anesthesia. An excess of thyrotropin is manifested by hyperfunction of the thyroid gland, a clinical picture of thyrotoxicosis.

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), or follitropin, causes the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles and their preparation for ovulation. In men, under the influence of FSH, the formation of spermatozoa occurs. luteinizing hormone (LH), or lutropin, contributes to the rupture of the membrane of a mature follicle, i.e. ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum. LH stimulates the production of female sex hormones - estrogen. In men, this hormone promotes the formation of male sex hormones - androgens.

The secretion of FSH and drugs is regulated by gonadoliberin of the hypothalamus. The formation of GnRH, FSH and LH depends on the level of estrogens and androgens and is regulated by a feedback mechanism. The adenohypophysis hormone prolactin inhibits the production of gonadotropic hormones. Glucocorticoids have an inhibitory effect on the release of LH.

Somatotropic hormone (GH)

Somatotropic hormone (STH), or somatotropin, or growth hormone, takes part in the regulation of growth and physical development processes. Stimulation of growth processes is due to the ability of growth hormone to enhance protein formation in the body, increase RNA synthesis, and enhance the transport of amino acids from the blood to cells. The effect of the hormone is most pronounced on bone and cartilage tissue. Somatotropin acts through "sotomomedinov", which are formed in the liver under the influence of somatotropin. Somatotropin affects carbohydrate metabolism, exerting an insulin-like effect. The hormone enhances the mobilization of fat from the depot and its use in energy metabolism.

Somatotropin production is regulated by somatoliberin and somatostatin of the hypothalamus. A decrease in the content of glucose and fatty acids, an excess of amino acids in the blood plasma also lead to an increase in the secretion of somatotropin. Vasopressin, endorphin stimulate the production of growth hormone. If the hyperfunction of the anterior pituitary gland manifests itself in childhood, then this leads to increased proportional growth in length - gigantism. If hyperfunction occurs in an adult, when the growth of the body as a whole has already been completed, there is an increase in only those parts of the body that are still able to grow. These are fingers and toes, hands and feet, nose and lower jaw, tongue, organs of the chest and abdominal cavities. This disease is called acromegaly. The cause is a benign tumor of the pituitary gland. Hypofunction of the anterior pituitary gland in childhood is expressed in growth retardation - dwarfism ( "pituitary nanism"). Mental development is not impaired. Somatotropin is species specific.

In the regulation of the functions of the endocrine system and maintaining the water and electrolyte balance in the human body, an important role belongs to the hormones of the hypothalamus. Let's take a closer look at their functions.

Anatomy and Physiology

The hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain under the thalamus and is the place where the interaction between the central nervous system and the endocrine system takes place. Substances with very high biological activity are formed in its nerve cells. Through the capillary system, they reach the pituitary gland and regulate its secretory activity. Thus, there is a direct connection between the production of hormones of the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland - in fact, they are a single complex.

Biologically active substances, produced by the nerve cells of the hypothalamus and stimulating the functions of the pituitary gland, are called liberins or riesling factors. Substances that, on the contrary, suppress the secretion of pituitary hormones are called statins or inhibitory factors.

The hypothalamus produces the following hormones:

• thyroliberin (TRF);
• corticoliberin (CRF);
• follyliberin (FRL);
• luliberin (LRL);
• prolactoliberin (PRL);
• somatoliberin (CPR);
• melanoliberin (MLR);
• melanostatin (MIF);
• prolactostatin (PIF);
• somatostatin (SIF).

According to the chemical structure, they are all peptides, that is, they belong to a subclass of proteins, however, the exact chemical formulas have been established for only five of them. Difficulties in their study are due to the fact that they are extremely small in the tissues of the hypothalamus. For example, in order to isolate only 1 mg of thyroliberin in its pure form, it is necessary to process about a ton of hypothalamus obtained from 5 million sheep!

What organs are affected

Liberins and statins produced by the hypothalamus reach the pituitary through the portal vascular system, where they stimulate the biosynthesis of tropic pituitary hormones. The latter with the blood flow reach the target organs and exert their effect on them.

Let us consider this process in a simplified and schematic way.

Releasing factors reach the pituitary via the portal vessels. Neurophysin stimulates the cells of the posterior pituitary gland, thereby increasing the release of oxytocin and vasopressin.

Other releasing factors act on the anterior pituitary gland. The scheme of their influence is presented in the table:

Functions of the hormones of the hypothalamus

To date, the biological functions of the following hypothalamic releasing factors have been most fully studied:

1. Gonadoliberins. They have a regulatory effect on the production of sex hormones. Provide the correct menstrual cycle and form sexual desire. It is under their influence that the ovum matures in the ovary and exits from the Graaffian vesicle. Insufficient secretion of gonadoliberins leads to a decrease in potency in men and infertility in women.
2. Somatoliberin. The hypothalamus affects the secretion of growth hormone precisely by the release of somatoliberin. A decrease in the production of this releasing factor causes a decrease in the release of somatotropin by the pituitary gland, which ultimately manifests itself as slow growth, dwarfism. Conversely, an excess of somatoliberin contributes to high growth, acromegaly.
3. Corticoliberin. Serves to enhance the secretion of adrenocorticotropin by the pituitary gland. If it is produced in insufficient quantities, then a person develops adrenal insufficiency.
4. Prolactoliberin. Actively produced during pregnancy and lactation.
5. Thyroliberin. Responsible for the formation of thyrotropin by the pituitary gland and an increase in the blood of thyroxine, triiodothyronine.
6. Melanoliberin. It regulates the formation and decomposition of melanin pigment.

The physiological role of oxytocin and vasopressin has been much better studied, so let's talk about this in more detail.

Oxytocin

Oxytocin can have the following effects:

• promotes the separation of milk from the breast during lactation;
• stimulates uterine contractions;
• enhances sexual arousal in both women and men;
• eliminates the feeling of anxiety and fear, helps to increase confidence in the partner;
• slightly reduces diuresis.

The results of two independent clinical studies conducted in 2003 and 2007 showed that the use of oxytocin in the complex therapy of patients with autism led to the expansion of the boundaries of their emotional behavior.

A group of Australian scientists found that intramuscular administration of oxytocin made experimental rats immune to the action of ethyl alcohol. Currently, these studies are ongoing, and experts suggest that it is possible that oxytocin will find further use in the treatment of people with alcohol dependence.

Vasopressin

The main functions of vasopressin (ADH, antidiuretic hormone) are:

• narrowing of blood vessels;
• water retention in the body;
• regulation of aggressive behavior;
• promotion blood pressure by increasing peripheral resistance.

Violation of the functions of vasopressin leads to the development of diseases:

1. diabetes insipidus. The pathological mechanism of development is based on insufficient secretion of vasopressin by the hypothalamus. In a patient, due to a decrease in water reabsorption in the kidneys, diuresis sharply increases. In severe cases, the daily amount of urine can reach 10-20 liters.
2. Parhon's syndrome(syndrome of inappropriate secretion of vasopressin). Clinically manifested by lack of appetite, nausea, vomiting, increased muscle tone and impaired consciousness up to coma. By limiting the flow of water into the body, the condition of patients improves, and with heavy drinking and intravenous infusions, on the contrary, it worsens.

Video

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Biological chemistry Lelevich Vladimir Valeryanovich

Hormones of the hypothalamus

Hormones of the hypothalamus

The CNS regulates the endocrine system through the hypothalamus. Two types of peptide hormones are synthesized in the hypothalamus neuron cells. Some through the system of hypothalamic-pituitary vessels enter the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, where they stimulate (liberins) or inhibit (statins) the synthesis of tropic pituitary hormones. Others (oxytocin, vasopressin) enter through the axons of nerve cells to the posterior pituitary gland, where they are stored and secreted into the blood in response to appropriate signals. Currently, 7 liberins and 3 statins are known.

Table 13.1. Hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

According to the chemical structure, the hormones of the hypothalamus are low molecular weight peptides. They release pituitary tropic hormones through the adenylate cyclase mechanism and are rapidly inactivated in the blood (half-life 2–4 min). Synthesis and secretion of hormones of the hypothalamus is suppressed by hormones of the endocrine peripheral glands according to the principle of negative feedback.

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The pituitary and hypothalamus are important components of the human endocrine system that produce various. Almost everyone knows these complex names and understands their connection with the brain, but what do the hypothalamus and pituitary gland actually do and what is their role in human life and health?

The pituitary gland is called the cerebral appendage, located under the cerebral cortex. It is tiny but performs very important functions. This endocrine gland regulates processes such as growth and development, sexual function and the ability to reproduce, and metabolism.

The tiny pituitary gland is divided according to its structure into lobes, each of which has its own functions. Each of the lobes (anterior, posterior and intermediate) has its own groups of cells that produce certain ones that regulate various systems and functions of the body.

The concept of gigantism and dwarfism is associated with underdevelopment or excessive action of the pituitary gland.The pituitary gland is connected to the hypothalamus, part of the intermediate. This small area acts as a coordinator. It produces hormones by communicating with the pituitary gland. Hormones act on the pituitary gland and provoke the production of other hormones that control almost the entire endocrine system of the body. The work of the hypothalamus depends on such states of the body as hunger or thirst, as well as sleep.

The hormones of the pituitary and hypothalamus play an important role - this is a complex process of coordinating the work of the whole organism as a whole.

The posterior pituitary is the receiver of signals from the hypothalamus. The intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland in humans is only a thin layer. In some animals, it is very well developed.

More information about the hypothalamic-pituitary system can be found in the video.

Various failures in the work of the hypothalamic-pituitary system lead to serious and irreversible disorders.

So, for example, a pituitary tumor leads to serious visual impairment, and the hypothalamus plays the role of an indicator of hunger or satiety.

There is a theory that obesity can be treated by direct action on the hypothalamus. If the work of the hypothalamus was disrupted in childhood, the child will have slow growth, and there will also be problems with the formation of sexual characteristics.

Hormone Functions

Each department of the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus itself produce their own individual (releasing hormones), which are vital for the body to function normally.

Let's consider some of them:

• Somatoliberin. It is a hypothalamic hormone that acts on the pituitary gland. It is also called growth hormone. A lack of it leads to short stature, and an excess to high stature or even gigantism. This hormone enhances protein production and fat breakdown. During the day, the level of the hormone is not too high, but it increases during meals and sleep.
• Prolactin. Prolactin is produced by the pituitary gland. It is of direct importance for reproduction and lactation. First of all, it affects their growth, the production of colostrum and its transformation into breast milk. Immediately after childbirth, this hormone, which provokes lactation, begins to be actively produced. Around the third day, colostrum and milk begin to stand out.
• Gonadotropic hormones of the pituitary gland. There are 3 such hormones responsible for the sexual functions of the body: follicle-stimulating (the formation of follicles and the formation of the corpus luteum), luteinizing (the transformation of the follicle into the corpus luteum) and luteotropic (already known prolactin).
• Thyroliberin. It is produced by the hypothalamus and acts on the pituitary gland, which provokes the production of a similar hormone in it. The effect of this hormone on the nervous system and the reduction of depression with a sufficient level of it have been proven. An excess of this hormone can lead to sexual dysfunction.
• Corticotropin. It is produced by the pituitary gland and controls the work of the adrenal glands, and is also responsible for the production of steroid hormones. It promotes the breakdown of adipose tissue. An excess of this hormone leads to disturbances in the work of almost all internal organs, muscles and bones undergo changes. Adipose tissue develops unevenly: in some parts of the body it is in excess, in others it is absent.

Hormone related diseases

Gigantism - malfunctions of the hormone system

The hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary system must be in constant balance. This system is complex, has many different connections with other systems and organs. Any failure leads to serious consequences.

There are a lot of diseases caused by disorders in the work of the pituitary and hypothalamus.

They have a complex system of symptoms and are difficult to diagnose and treat:

1. Gigantism. This is rare, associated with excessive production of growth hormone by the pituitary gland. In addition to incredibly high growth, these people also suffer from other complications, such as severe joint pain, headaches, fatigue, infertility, heart failure, etc. This disease is treated with the hormone somatostatin, which controls growth. Unfortunately, most patients with this disease do not survive to old age due to the large number.
2. Acromegaly. A disease similar to gigantism, expressed in an increase in the bones of the skull, especially the facial bones, as well as the feet and hands. This disease does not develop immediately, but only after growth is completed. It can proceed slowly, from year to year changing the appearance of a person. Facial features become coarse, large, and hands and feet become disproportionately large. In addition, there is hypertension, sleep apnea, high blood pressure.
3. Itsenko-Cushing's disease. This is a serious disease caused by malfunctions in the hypothalamic-pituitary system. It is associated with excessive release of corticotropin. As a result, metabolic processes in the body are disturbed, fat is actively and unevenly deposited, stretch marks appear, hair on the body and face actively grows, bones become brittle, immunity falls, and the entire sexual sphere is disturbed. With a mild form of the course of the disease, the prognosis is quite favorable. However, in severe cases, even after the onset of recovery, irreversible ones remain, for example, renal failure.

Malfunctions in the hypothalamic-pituitary system often lead to severe complications and are difficult to treat. A large number of diseases are associated with tumors of the pituitary gland, which determines the excess or lack of hormones secreted by it.