Almost 200 years have passed since the great Emperor of France, Napoleon Bonaparte, passed away in 1821. Various commissions continually declared new versions of death “official”, but it is still not clear why the famous Corsican died.

Probably, a serious study of Bonaparte's death began in 1955, when the Swedish toxicologist Sten Forshwood accidentally became acquainted with the memoirs of Louis Marchand, a bodyguard and servant of the Emperor of France. In Marchand's work, the Swede came across some rather interesting details regarding the state of the emperor's health in the last years of his life. To his amazement, the Swede discovered 22 symptoms of Napoleon’s arsenic poisoning in his memoirs! Forshwood also read in Marchand’s memoirs about an interesting tradition that Napoleon followed: he often gave his locks of hair as souvenirs to friends.

Having collected all the information received, the Scandinavian set to work, wanting to establish the true causes of death based on the study of hair. The toxicologist discovered some very interesting information after reading the autopsy report. It was necessary to immediately look for samples of the emperor's curls!

Fortunately, they were found, and the researcher, with the help of the Scot Smith, analyzed the strands of 1816-1818, and also 1821. Napoleon's hair, sealed in small containers, was bombarded with thermal neutrons at the Harwell Institute of Atomic Energy in a suburb of London. As a result of the experiment, it was possible to estimate with very high accuracy the amount of arsenic in the emperor’s hair. In order to ensure that scientists are impartial to the hair samples, Forshwood did not disclose the true motives of his work for a long time, since rumors about Bonaparte’s death circulated for many years.

As a result, 1 gram of imperial hair accounted for 10.4 micrograms of arsenic, which indicated a large amount of a harmful substance in the body of the former ruler of France. The norm was exceeded by almost 15 times!

Forshwood believed that the emperor was poisoned, concluding that Napoleon was fed arsenic for six whole years. The Swede was inspired to think about the deliberate poisoning of Bonaparte by the mysterious death of the Emperor's secret agent Cipriani. According to eyewitness accounts, Cipriani was poisoned in one go. It is likely that he realized about some kind of conspiracy and himself became a victim of poisoners. It is worth noting, however, that no autopsy was performed on Napoleon’s close associate, so versions of his poisoning may simply be speculation.

However, Cipriani's grave subsequently mysteriously disappeared from the cemetery, and Count Charles de Montholon, who registered civil acts on the island of St. Helena, “forgot” to reflect in any way the fact of Cipriani’s death. Supporters of the poisoning version believed that it was the count who needed Napoleon’s death.

Canadian writer Ben Wider is sure that Montolon was in the service of the English crown and carried out the orders of the British rulers, or simply took revenge on the emperor for his relationship with the count’s wife. Probably, the disappearance of Cipriani's grave can be explained by the following coincidence of circumstances. After rumors about the secret transportation of Bonaparte's body to England and his burial in Westminster Abbey, Cipriani's body was exhumed, since investigators believed that instead of the emperor, his servant, who looked very similar to Napoleon, could have been placed in the coffin.

After the first preliminary conclusions, Forshwood resorted to a more thorough analysis, wanting to find out in what doses arsenic entered the body of the exiled ruler. If arsenic was ingested at regular intervals and in equal doses, it could be assumed that the poisoner added the poison to Napoleon gradually, following a certain plan.

The analysis showed that the emperor received the highest doses of arsenic from the beginning of October 1817 to November 1, December 11, 16, 30, January 26-29, February 26-27, 1818, and March 13.

Subsequently, Pascal Kintz, president of the International Association of Forensic Toxicologists, issued a statement in which he confirmed the presence of large doses of arsenic in the emperor's hair and was not afraid to conclude that Napoleon was poisoned. However, it is worth noting that the study was carried out at the request of Ben Weider and was paid for at his expense. As you already understand, Wider is an ardent supporter of the poisoning version, and the main culprit, in his opinion, is the Comte de Montholon. In addition, the Canadian writer is a billionaire who has made a lot of money from his sensational books about Bonaparte. It is possible that Kintz’s research was not entirely objective and was more intended to prove to the public the “absolute” truth of Wider’s works, increasing their ratings around the world and increasing the already huge profits of the Canadian writer.

Such data, by and large, do not prove anything, since the entry of arsenic into Napoleon’s body could not have occurred at all by the will of the poisoner, but in a completely different way. For example, winemakers of that time treated barrels with a composition that included large doses of arsenic. As you know, Bonaparte did not refuse to drink, so he could receive doses not from Montolon at all, but of his own free will - over a glass of wine from the cellars. Arsenic was also widely used to restore hair and treat ammunition.

It is widely believed among French historians that the cause of the death of the great Corsican could have been fumes from arsenic-impregnated wallpaper in Napoleon's house on the island of St. Helena. Scientists have at their disposal the only copy of the fatal wallpaper from Bonaparte’s bedroom, a small piece measuring less than 10 square centimeters. A piece was torn from the wall of the emperor's bedroom in 1825, 4 years after his death. Having ended up in the hands of one of the families of high society in Britain, it was kept in the family museum until 2003, when it was sold at auction in the city of Ludlow. It is believed that this is the only example of red and gold wallpaper that has survived to this day, so researchers must be very careful and attentive when studying it.

Leading French expert pathologists, for their part, did not give an exact answer to the question of whether Napoleon died from arsenic poisoning. In their opinion, the only way to reliably verify this is to exhume the body of the emperor, which now rests in the crypt of the Invalides in Paris.

A senior representative of the main forensic laboratory of the National Gendarmerie, Roland Molinaro, and Ivan Ricordel, head of the toxicology department of the Paris police, in turn, said that only a few hairs of Napoleon were used in the study and, due to such a limited number of samples, no definite conclusions could be drawn. Molinaro noticed that when eating oysters, the arsenic content in the human body increases by 20-30 times. “Did Napoleon eat oysters before he died?” — the expert asked ironically.

Chantal Bismuth, head of the Paris anti-toxicology center, warned against hasty conclusions, noting that arsenic was widely used in limited doses in 19th-century medicines. Researchers from the American University of Sheffield, led by Stephen Karch, echo him. However, they completely believe that the cause of the death of the great French leader lies in improper treatment. “The doctors were overzealous!” - say scientists from the United States. In their opinion, Napoleon was treated with poisonous colorless salt, antimony tartrate and potassium. This could cause potassium deficiency in the body, which leads to a fatal heart disease called fusiform arrhythmia. The “point” was probably caused by a 600-milligram dose of mercury dichloride given to Napoleon to cleanse his intestines two days before his death.

Just recently, a manuscript was discovered in Scotland claiming that Napoleon died of cancer. The document, found by auction house Thomson, Roddick & Medcalf, was written by a doctor who examined Napoleon's body after his death on May 5, 1821. The paper was in items that were given to the auction house by a Briton living in a cottage in the south of Scotland.

Representatives of the auction house claim that the author of the found manuscript was one of those who had to be present at the autopsy. However, the document does not contain the name of the doctor himself - the manuscript is not signed. According to auction house spokesman Steve Lees, the document claims that the deceased emperor had a greatly enlarged stomach, which apparently caused Napoleon severe pain.

Is Thomson, Roddick & Medcalf trying to make a profit by releasing this anonymous protocol to the public?

The version of stomach cancer is supported by Swiss and English researchers. Not to mention the attending physician of Napoleon himself, Antommarchi, whose version was questioned in the 60s of the twentieth century after the unexpected discovery of Stan Forshwood. Opponents of the version of stomach cancer argue that in the event of an illness of this kind, Bonaparte would not be able to eat normally. However, Napoleon's large dying weight does not prove anything, says Alessandro Lugli and his colleagues from the University Hospital in Basel.

According to the Swiss, it is not the weight itself that is important, but its change during illness. After conducting an experiment, they established a relationship between body weight and trouser size. Armed with the knowledge gained, the researchers found that in the period from 1804 to 1820, Napoleon grew considerably fat: his weight increased from 68 kg to 90 kg, which was not prevented by either the constant stress associated with endless battles or exile - first to Elba , and then to St. Helena Island. However, already in 1821, a few months before his death, the emperor began to lose weight and lost weight to 80 kilograms.

Pathologists concluded that at the end of 1820 Napoleon developed a malignant tumor. It began to grow quite quickly, so the true cause of death could have been internal hemorrhage caused by stomach cancer.

This version of the death of the great ruler of France is, no doubt, less tempting for those who want to find sensations everywhere. However, in my opinion, it is she who is more plausible. It just so happens that something unusual and sensational arouses unconditional interest. Is this why they look for a conspiracy in any tragic accident? Maybe. The fact of material interest cannot be ruled out - let’s remember the Canadian Wider.

In any case, I believe that there was no premeditated murder. Moreover, extended over years. If arsenic is somehow “to blame” for Napoleon’s death, then the conclusion about poisoning by attackers is not obvious: this substance was too common in everyday life of that time. And the entry of large doses into Bonaparte’s body at certain periods of time can be explained by some kind of medical procedures or something similar. To be honest, there is little point in poisoning Napoleon for so long, when it was enough to add arsenic to the emperor’s food once.

I wonder what the results will be if we calculate the amount of arsenic in the body of other residents of that era and the same position? I wouldn’t be surprised if they were somewhat similar to Napoleonic ones. It’s just that Napoleon’s death is the death of a great man, the death of the majority is inevitable. It is clear which attracts the crowd more. There will be people who want to know the “truth,” and there will also be writers who are ready to provide this “truth.”

In recent years, more and more historians are inclined to believe that Napoleon was poisoned. There are more than enough reasons for this. But who poisoned him, what was the motivation for the murder? In the year of the emperor's death, this issue was treated very formally. According to the official conclusion, Napoleon, like his father, died of stomach cancer. Then the diagnosis of a hereditary disease suited everyone. The main thing is that Europe has finally gotten rid of the tyrant. No one thought much about another possible cause of death. This was the case until two famous historians took up the matter - Canadian Ben Weider and Frenchman Rene Maury.

They approached the search for an answer to the cause of Napoleon’s death from different positions, but agreed unanimously on one thing: the Emperor of France was poisoned with arsenic by the French general Charles Montolon, who went with him into exile on the island of St. Helena. A revelation for historians was the statement of a descendant of the poisoner, Francois de Cande-Montolon, who found his ancestor guilty of the death of Napoleon. As evidence, he presented 273 documents found in the attic of the house where the Montolon family lived. These documents were published in a book written by François de Cande-Montolon with René Maury, called Napoleon's Mystery Solved.

Paradoxically, even after the publication of this book, skeptics say that the hypothesis of the poisoning of the emperor is just a version. However, René Maury and Ben Weider claim that Napoleon was poisoned. Historians differ only in determining the true reasons for the murder.

According to Rene Maury, “this is an ordinary love story with a bad ending...”.

Ben Weider and I conducted independent research on hair clipped from Napoleon's head during his stay on St. Helena from 1816 to 1821, which ended up in the possession of a Canadian collector. It turned out that they contained arsenic in small concentrations. This conclusion was given to Ben Weider in Swiss, French and German laboratories, by specialists from the British nuclear laboratory and from the American Bureau of Toxicology. All that remained was to find out: who, where, when, how and why did it? - says Rene Mori.

Having learned about research into the hair of Napoleon Bonaparte, a descendant of General Montolon, Francois de Cande-Montolon, provided documents that were hitherto unknown. These were letters from Charles Montolon to his wife Albina, his personal diary, memoirs, draft manuscripts... After studying these documents, Rene Maury came to the conclusion that General Charles Montolon poisoned the emperor because of his... greed and jealousy.

Charles Montolon loved his wife Albina very much and took care of his family. Nevertheless, he himself pushed his wife to get closer to Napoleon in order to win him over. In July 1819, after Albina de Montolon became the emperor's mistress and gave birth to a girl named Josephine, Napoleon ordered her to leave the island with her children.

For Charles Montolon this was a real blow. Napoleon forbade the general to follow his family, ordering him to stay with him until the end. But Montolon was only 36 years old! Then, apparently, the general decided to “speed up this end” and at the same time take possession of Bonaparte’s inheritance. This is evidenced by the found draft of the emperor's will, according to which Montolon remained the main heir.

But the sudden death of Napoleon could raise suspicions of his murder. Rene Maury explains Montolon's actions as follows:

“...He had to act quickly enough to reduce both his own suffering due to the breakup with his beloved and the torment of the victim, but not too quickly to provide himself with an alibi and safety in case of suspicion of murder. Therefore, the general began adding small doses of arsenic to the emperor’s food and drink.

He thought of almost everything. Except one. Despite Napoleon's "illness", the emperor was not allowed to leave St. Helena. And on March 17, 1821, doctors discovered antimony in the patient, which caused vomiting. In combination with arsenic, antimony was a strong poisonous agent. This “explosive mixture,” combined with mercury chloride, which was given to the patient as a laxative, caused severe intoxication of Napoleon’s body after about six weeks. After all, doctors knew nothing about arsenic! Only the killer knew about this, committing a crime to reunite with his family.”

There is, according to Rene Maury, a classic love triangle that destroyed Napoleon and did not give happiness to Montolon, who pushed his wife to have a relationship with the emperor. After the death of Napoleon, the spouses Albina and Charles separated...

Ben Weider believes that “this is a political-financial crime...”.

Canadian historian Ben Weider, having read the memoirs of Napoleon's former servant Louis Marchand, published only in 1952, began to doubt that the emperor died of stomach cancer. And after examining Napoleon’s hair, in which arsenic was found, Weider concluded that the emperor was given poison for five years: from January 1816 to March 1821. The purpose of the poisoning was to weaken Napoleon’s health, and not to kill. The doses of arsenic were so small that they could not lead to death, but caused pain in the stomach, which was treated with mercury chloride. However, in combination with hydrocyanic acid, which is found in almonds, mercury chloride becomes poisonous.

And in March 1821, Napoleon began adding almonds to his syrup. On May 3, doctors gave the emperor 10 grains of mercury chloride at once! Was this murder? By order of Montolon?

It is quite possible, because on December 5, 1821, Montolon wrote in his diary: “He has no more than six months to live…” And the general’s reference book was “The History of the Marquise of Brenvilliers,” which tells about the famous poisoner who “specialized” in arsenic in the 18th century V. According to some reports, Montolon poured poison into bottles of wine that the emperor drank.

According to Vaider, Montolon decided to follow the emperor into exile in order to avoid creditors and arrest for large debts. After all, he was counting on Napoleon's money, which he so lacked. And the general became the only heir of the emperor. He got a considerable sum: 2 million gold Napoleonic francs.

It is obvious that both the London cabinet and the French court were interested in the physical destruction of Napoleon. The fear of him was still great, even though Napoleon was seven thousand kilometers from Europe. The assassination of the emperor took place with their tacit consent, or perhaps with approval...

In the history of France there were many coups and revolutions, monarchies were replaced by republics, and vice versa. Bonaparte was one of the significant figures in the history of this country and all of Europe.

Few people know that after his defeat he abdicated the throne in favor of his young son. The Bonapartists gave him the name Napoleon II. What happened to the rightful heir, how many other Napoleons were there in the history of France?

Sons of Napoleon

The French emperor had three sons, two of them illegitimate. The fate of each of the offspring developed differently.

The ruler had his first son from a relationship with Eleanor de la Pleine. At that time, Napoleon was married to Josephine Beauharnais, but the couple had no children during ten years of marriage. The boy was born on December 13, 1806 at two o'clock in the morning. The Emperor received the good news while in Poland. His first thought was to adopt a child, but she soon disappeared. Napoleon wanted a legitimate heir.

The boy was given the name Charles. Mother and son received annual money for their maintenance. The father loved and spoiled the boy. After his death, he left him a significant amount. However, Charles squandered it very quickly, because he loved to spend money, play cards, and participate in duels. He was dismissed from military service for non-compliance with the regulations, and tried to study to become a clergyman. As a result, the young man found a way to exist - he won an annual allowance from his mother, and later received a pension from his cousin, who became the emperor. After the overthrow of Napoleon III, Count Leon went bankrupt, and was later buried as a beggar tramp.

The birth of Charles prompted the emperor to think about breaking up with his official wife, who was unable to give birth to an heir. He meets Maria Valevskaya, who gives birth to her son Alexander on May 4, 1810. When the mistress returned with her son in her arms to Paris, the emperor had already found a replacement for her. He allocated a significant amount for the maintenance of his son. Maria Valevskaya died very early, and Alexander had to take care of his life himself. In 1830 he took part in the Polish Uprising. After its defeat, the young man moved to Paris, where he became a captain in the French army. After retiring, he was engaged in journalism, drama, carried out diplomatic assignments, was Minister of Foreign Affairs under Napoleon III, and participated in the Paris Congress of 1856. He died in 1868, leaving behind seven children.

Napoleon II, whose biography will be discussed below, was the third son of the emperor. He became the only legitimate child. Who was his mother?

Heir's mother

After his divorce from Josephine, the ruler of France began searching for a wife who would give him a legitimate heir. At a special council it was decided that Napoleon should enter into a marriage alliance with a great power. This would allow him to guarantee his rights in the international arena.

Most ministers saw the best candidate in the sister of Russian Emperor Alexander the First, Anna Pavlovna. There were also those who were inclined towards an alliance with Austria through marriage with Marie-Louise, the daughter of Emperor Franz I.

Alexander the First did not want such a relationship, so he came up with new excuses. Napoleon was tired of waiting, he turned his gaze towards the Austrian party. The agreement was signed in 1810, at the same time a marriage by proxy was concluded in Vienna. Only after this the couple met. They had not seen each other before this.

The emperor fell in love with the young woman as soon as he saw her. A year later (04/20/1811) she gave him an heir, who was named Napoleon-François-Joseph. What fate awaited the heir named Napoleon II?

King of Rome

At birth, the boy was proclaimed King of Rome. However, this title was formal. In 1814, the emperor abdicated the throne. He did this in favor of his legal heir, and Napoleon II was declared French Emperor. Only the Bonapartists considered him a ruler, who called the boy this: Napoleon II Eaglet.

The history of this nickname is connected with the repressive regime that was introduced after Napoleon's abdication. It turned out to be unsafe to mention the name of the former emperor, so his followers called him Eagle. The bird was the heraldic symbol of the ruler. It was dangerous to mention his son, who left France, so he was called Eaglet. It is unknown who came up with the nickname, but Edmond Rostand made it famous. In 1900, he wrote the drama “The Little Eaglet” about the life of Napoleon II. In it, a young man is forced to live in a golden German cage.

The three-year-old heir was not crowned because the government in France had changed. In addition, the Russian emperor opposed the coronation. Together with Talleyrand, he insisted that the Bourbons be returned to power.

Marie-Louise took her son and returned to her family in Vienna. There she received the Duchy of Parma and met her future husband, who was initially assigned to keep an eye on her.

From Napoleon to Franz

Napoleon II remained the main hope of the Bonapartists. That is why he was guarded much more carefully than the most dangerous criminal. Everyone understood that the boy's origin could lead to a serious Bonapartist movement not only in France, but throughout the world.

The son of the deposed emperor lived near Vienna (Schönbrunn Castle). He was forced to speak only German, and was addressed by his middle name - Franz. In 1818 he was given the title of Duke of Reichstadt.

The Duke was involved in military service from the age of twelve. Despite all the prohibitions, and perhaps despite them, Franz remembered his origin. He was an ardent admirer of his great father.

Early death

By 1830, Napoleon II, who was about the same height as his father, had risen to the rank of major. It is unknown whether he could have lived up to the hopes of the Bonapartists. His life was short-lived. He died in 1832 from tuberculosis.

Napoleon-Francois was buried in Vienna, next to the other Habsburgs.

Posthumous fate

A hundred years later, Napoleon II (the photo has not survived to this day) was disturbed. In 1940, Adolf Hitler ordered his remains to be transferred to the Cathedral of the Invalides. He was placed next to his father's tomb.

Heir to Napoleon II

The last monarch of France was Napoleon III Bonaparte. He was the nephew of the illustrious Emperor and the cousin of the Duke of Reichstadt. At birth, the future monarch was named Charles Louis Napoleon. Father was Louis Bonaparte. Mother - Hortense de Beauharnais. The marriage between them was forced, so the couple lived in constant separation.

The boy grew up at his uncle's court. Since childhood, he literally worshiped him and was devoted to “Napoleonic” ideas. He strove for power and walked towards his goal, clearing the road ahead of him.

After the overthrow of Bonaparte, the boy, his brother and mother moved to Switzerland, where Hortense acquired Arenenberg Castle. Louis did not receive a systematic school education due to constant moving. In Switzerland he entered military service.

After the death of Napoleon II, Charles Louis became the one who represented Napoleonic ideas and claims. Four years later he tried to seize power in France. His act went down in history as the Strasbourg conspiracy. The attempt was unsuccessful, Bonaparte was exiled to America. He stayed there for a year, after which he settled in Switzerland and then in England.

The second attempt to become the head of France was made in 1840. It also turned out to be unsuccessful. As a result, Charles Louis was arrested with other conspirators and put on trial by the peers. His punishment was life imprisonment with the preservation of all rights. Surprisingly, such a punishment did not exist in French law. The unsuccessful conspirator spent six years in the Gam fortress. At this time, he wrote articles, published books, and communicated with friends. In 1846, Bonaparte fled from the fortress to England. On the island he met Harriet Gowar, who was an actress, owner of a fortune and many useful acquaintances. She helped her lover in many ways.

Reign of Napoleon III

In 1848, a revolution occurred in France. Louis hurried to Paris. He took a wait-and-see approach until the opportunity arose to nominate his candidacy for the presidency. According to the election results, he received 75% of the votes. At the age of forty he became President of the Republic.

He was not satisfied with being president, so in 1851 he dissolved the Assembly and established an empire in the state.

A year later he was proclaimed emperor under the name Napoleon III. According to the Bonapartist tradition, it was taken into account that for fourteen days the head of state was Napoleon II (son of Emperor Bonaparte).

The monarch was in power until 1870. The Franco-Prussian War put an end to his reign. During these years he suffered greatly from gallstones and took opiates. Because of this, he was lethargic and did not think well.

Napoleon the Third surrendered to William the First. A day later, the September Revolution took place in Paris. The empire ceased to exist. The deposed ruler moved to England, where he died in 1873.

Prototype of Baron Munchausen

Many art historians suggest that for the illustrative image of the famous Baron Munchausen, artist Gustave Dore took the appearance of Napoleon III as a prototype. The similarity is manifested in the oval of the head, the shape of the nose, mustache and goatee. Munchausen's coat of arms were three ducks, which can be considered an allusion to the Bonaparte coat of arms (three little bees).

Dynastic connection

There are a total of five Napoleons in history. They were all relatives.

It is customary to begin the genealogy of the Bonapartes with Carlo Buonaparte. He had five sons: Joseph, Napoleon, Lucien, Louis, Jerome. Napoleon II is the son of Napoleon the First, Napoleon the Third is the son of Louis, Napoleon the Fourth is the grandson of Louis, Napoleon the Fifth is the grandson of Jerome. In fact, only two from the list ruled; the rest were considered rulers only by the Bonapartists.

The cause of Napoleon's death was a hereditary disease.

The autopsy of the 51-year-old Napoleon was performed by the Corsican pathologist Francesco Antomarchi, who observed his patient during the last 18 months of his life. In the presence of English doctors, the 30-year-old doctor opened the chest cavity so that everyone present could see the vital organs. The heart was placed in a silver vessel with alcohol, which, according to Napoleon's will, was to be sent to Marie-Louise, but the governor ordered it to be placed in a coffin. Then the stomach, which was supposed to be the source of the disease, was removed. Doctors could not reach a consensus and publish a general conclusion about the cause of Napoleon’s death. As a result, four different documents appeared, further fueling the rumors. Each of the bulletins states the presence of a stomach ulcer near the pylorus, i.e. opening connecting the stomach to the intestines. Antomarchi directly wrote about “cancerous ulceration”, his English colleagues - “about partial hardening of tissue, ready to degenerate into a cancerous tumor.”

Researchers have now concluded that Napoleon died from an inherited disease (his father died of stomach or pyloric cancer), which is caused by a chronic bacterial infection. Thus, scientists finally rejected the version of poisoning expressed in recent years, which was confirmed both in the symptoms of the disease and in the results of the autopsy. In general, the researchers came to the conclusion that even if Napoleon had returned from exile before 1821, due to his fatal illness, he would hardly have been able to interfere with the course of world history again. The researchers came to a completely unromantic conclusion. They even admitted that if a similar clinical case were to occur today, the medical prognosis would be very guarded and the chances of survival would be minimal. A new scientific study into the causes of Napoleon's death proves that he died at age 51 from terminal stomach cancer caused by a bacterial ulcer. If at the beginning of the 19th century gastric tumors were known to science, then no one knew about their bacterial origin.

The version of stomach cancer is supported by Swiss and English researchers. Not to mention the attending physician of Napoleon himself, Antommarchi, whose version was questioned in the 60s of the twentieth century after the unexpected discovery of Stan Forshwood. The report of the doctor who performed the autopsy is in Appendix A.

Opponents of the version of stomach cancer argue that in the event of an illness of this kind, Bonaparte would not be able to eat normally. However, Napoleon's large dying weight does not prove anything, says Alessandro Lugli and his colleagues from the University Hospital in Basel. According to the Swiss, it is not the weight itself that is important, but its change during illness. After conducting an experiment, they established a relationship between body weight and trouser size. Armed with the knowledge gained, the researchers found out that in the period from 1804 to 1820, Napoleon grew considerably fat: his weight increased from 68 kg to 90 kg, which was not prevented by either the constant stress associated with endless battles or exile - first to Elba , and then to St. Helena Island. However, already in 1821, a few months before his death, the emperor began to lose weight and lost weight to 80 kilograms. Pathologists concluded that at the end of 1820 Napoleon developed a malignant tumor. It began to grow quite quickly, so that the true cause of death could be internal hemorrhage caused by stomach cancer.

So, for those who want to find a sensation, this version of the death of the great ruler of France is less tempting. However, in my opinion, it is she who is more plausible. It just so happens that something unusual and sensational arouses unconditional interest. Is this why they look for a conspiracy in any tragic accident? Maybe. The fact of material interest cannot be ruled out - let us recall, for example, the Canadian Vader.

The cause of Bonaparte's death was a hormonal disease

This version stems from a rather curious addition to the sexy portrait of Napoleon. It was put forward in the English edition of The Guardian by American endocrinologist Robert Greenblatt.

The scientist claims that Napoleon was not poisoned by arsenic, and died not from cancer, but from a hormonal disease, which gradually turned him into a woman! Various symptoms that appeared in the emperor 12 years before his death indicate that he was susceptible to the so-called “Zollinger-Ellison disease,” which caused a disorder of the hormonal system and gradually changed Napoleon’s gender.

The lethargic state of the emperor and the difficulties he experienced with urination during the siege of Moscow, his swollen legs before the Battle of Borodino, severe stomach pains in Dresden, fatigue and neuralgia in Leipzig, lack of initiative and apathy in Waterloo - all these signs, says Robert Greenblatt, indicate that the emperor simply changed his gender.

The American researcher also notes that Napoleon was constantly gaining weight, and his figure little by little took on feminine contours. After Napoleon's death, during an autopsy, he was found not only to have an extensive stomach ulcer and bladder stones, but also to have a thick layer of fatty tissue on his body. The emperor had thick thighs, white and tender skin, completely devoid of hair, miniature arms and legs, soft round breasts and completely atrophied genitals.

In my opinion, this version is more designed to attract the attention of the crowd. As long as there are people who want to know the “truth,” there will be writers who are ready to provide this “truth.”

For two centuries, the death of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte (who died at the age of 52 on May 5, 1821 in exile on the island of St. Helena) remained the subject of scientific controversy and persistent myths. In particular, it was believed that Bonaparte was poisoned with arsenic. However, one study published several years ago appears to end this long debate. Moreover, the authors of the work managed to drop charges of Napoleon’s murder against his inner circle.

This scientific study of the causes of death of the disgraced emperor convincingly proves that he died of stomach cancer caused by a bacterial ulcer. At that time, doctors simply could not make such a diagnosis: after all, at the beginning of the 19th century, no one suspected the bacterial origin of gastric tumors. Property of bacteria Helicobacter pylori causing ulcers in the stomach was discovered only at the end of the 20th century by two Australian doctors. By the way, for their sensational discovery in 2005, they received the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It should be noted that even today the chances of survival for a patient with a diagnosis like Napoleon’s are minimal.

Napoleon Bonaparte.

A team of American, Swiss and Canadian pathologists, examining the case of Napoleon, carefully analyzed all historical sources in the light of modern medical knowledge. They reviewed medical evidence from the 1821 autopsy and the 1840 exhumation before the ship carried the emperor's remains to France, where they were interred in the Invalides (veterans of the Napoleonic Wars). Pathologists also studied the memories of Napoleon's relatives and doctors who were with the emperor.

According to experts, one of the main factors that played a fatal role in the development of gastric disease in the French emperor was poor heredity, since the death of his father, Charles de Buonaparte, was also caused by stomach cancer.

For many years, the imagination of hundreds of researchers during the Napoleonic Wars was excited by the hypothesis of a conspiracy and poisoning of the “Corsican monster” with arsenic. The basis for this was the rumors that spread immediately after the death of the emperor. In 1961, they seemed to have found a new life: after studying a strand of hair from the head of the late Bonaparte, a rather large dose of arsenic was discovered in it. Then historians tried to establish the identities of the alleged killers.

Among those who especially benefited from the death of the exiled emperor was Count Charles Tristan de Montolon, one of Napoleon's four close companions during the years of exile. Apparently, Montolon may have had enough motive for the murder.

The first is jealousy, because his beautiful wife Albina was favorable to Napoleon. The second is greed, since he was mired in debt and hoped to get rid of it by laying his hand on part of the emperor’s fortune. In addition, he allegedly loved luxury and pleasure, as a result of which the count always lacked money. This version could be confirmed by the fact that, having become the emperor's executor, Montolon inherited about two million francs.

And finally, researchers name politics as the third reason. Count Montolon shared the views of the monarchists, and his father-in-law was a close associate of the Count d'Artois, one of the main representatives of the Bourbon dynasty.

Despite its persuasiveness, the Count-poisoner hypothesis has been completely refuted - recent studies of historical documents clearly indicate the absence of any signs of arsenic poisoning. And those traces of arsenic that were found in the hair of the deceased got there from somewhere outside. According to one of the hypotheses put forward by German scientists, this is due to the emperor’s love of wine. The fact is that winemakers of that era used arsenic to clean wine barrels. It was this habit that led to the increased content of arsenic in the outer coverings (in the hair, in particular) of Napoleon.

And even if Charles Tristan de Montolon was greedy or jealous, he did not stain himself with murder.

Despite his ignorance of the properties of bacteria Helicobacter pylori, doctors of the 19th century were able to understand that they were dealing with a serious gastric disease. They left such accurate descriptions of Napoleon's stomach lesions that modern researchers were able to depict them and even compare these drawings with photographs of typical cases of ulcers and gastric cancer. These studies proved that the tumors in Napoleon's stomach were indeed malignant. Today, only 20 percent of patients with this diagnosis can live five years or more. And this is taking into account modern methods of treatment! Further confirmation of this hypothesis is a fact that was recently made public: Napoleon lost ten kilograms in the six months preceding his death.

It is important that the risk of stomach cancer was also high due to the diet of a soldier of that era - rich in corned beef, but devoid of fruits, vegetables and herbs. In addition, Napoleon was always careless about his diet: he ate hastily and chewed his food poorly. All of these factors, together with hereditary predisposition, led to progressive cancer.