Similarities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Physical differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Differences in behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Mental differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eleven
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Introduction
The conclusions that humans descended from monkeys and chimpanzees, our closest relatives, were made in the distant past of biological science, during the study and comparative analysis of the internal structure of humans and monkeys. There is still debate about who and how man came from. There are many theories and a considerable number of experiments are carried out in which the organisms of monkeys and humans are compared, as well as the capabilities of their organisms. The first to propose a hypothesis about the origin of man from ape-like ancestors who moved from climbing trees to walking upright was J. B. Lamarck. Later, in 1871 Charles Darwin's work "The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection" was published. In it, he proves the kinship of humans with apes, using data from comparative anatomy, embryology, and paleontology.
But there are many opponents of this theory who are trying to find differences between monkeys and humans. Today, science has discovered many differences between us and monkeys, but most people, unfortunately, do not know this. In this work I will try to list most of them, but first I will list a few similarities.
Humans and great apes: similarities
There is much in common in the appearance of humans and apes: large body sizes, long limbs in relation to the body, long neck, broad shoulders, absence of a tail and ischial calluses, a nose protruding from the plane of the face, a similar shape of the auricle. The body of anthropoids is covered with sparse hair without undercoat, through which the skin is visible. Their facial expressions are very similar to human ones. In the internal structure, one should note a similar number of lobes in the lungs, the number of papillae in the kidney, the presence of a vermiform appendix of the cecum, an almost identical pattern of tubercles on the molars, a similar structure of the larynx, etc. The timing of puberty and duration of pregnancy in apes is almost the same as in humans.
An exceptionally close similarity is noted in biochemical parameters: four blood groups, similar reactions of protein metabolism, diseases. Apes in the wild easily become infected by humans. It is no coincidence that great apes are indispensable experimental animals for the study of many human diseases. Humans and anthropoids are also close in the number of chromosomes (46 chromosomes in humans. 48 in chimpanzees, gorilla, orangutan), their shape and size. There is much in common in the primary structure of such important proteins as hemoglobin, myoglobin, etc.
Similarities in behavior: we express feelings of joy, anger, and sadness in the same way. Like people, monkeys tenderly caress their young, care for them and punish them for disobedience. Monkeys are able to use natural objects as simple weapons. Monkeys have very well developed memory and have concrete thinking.
Physical differences
Many primates and most mammals produce their own vitamin C.1
Our newborns are different from baby animals. Their sense organs are quite developed, the weight of the brain and body is much greater than that of monkeys, but with all this, our babies are helpless and more dependent on their parents. They can neither stand nor run, while newborn monkeys can hang and move from place to place. During the first year of life, a person develops functions that baby animals have before birth.
People need a long childhood. Chimpanzees and gorillas mature at 11–12 years of age.
We have different skeletal structures. Man as a whole is structured in a completely different way. Our torso is shorter, while monkeys have longer lower limbs.
Monkeys have long arms and short legs; we, on the contrary, have short arms and long legs. The arms of the great apes are so long that, taking a slightly bent position, they can reach the ground with them.
Humans have a special S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves; monkeys do not have a curved spine. Humans have the largest total number of vertebrae. Humans have 12 pairs of ribs, and chimpanzees have 13 pairs. In humans, the rib cage is deeper and barrel-shaped, while in chimpanzees it is cone-shaped. Additionally, a cross section of chimpanzee ribs shows that they are rounder than human ribs.
Human feet are unique in facilitating bipedal gait and cannot be compared to the appearance and function of the ape's foot. The toes on the human foot are relatively straight, and not curved like those of monkeys. Not a single monkey has such a pushing foot as a human, which means that not a single monkey is capable of walking like humans - with long steps and leaving human footprints.
Monkeys have no arch in their feet. When walking, our foot, thanks to the arch, absorbs all loads, shocks and impacts. It is known that no animal has a springy arch of the foot. If man descended from ancient monkeys, then the arch of his foot should have appeared from scratch. However, the spring vault is not just a small part, but a complex mechanism. When moving on the ground, monkeys rely on the outer edge of the foot, maintaining balance with the help of the forelimbs.
The structure of the human kidney is unique.
A person does not have continuous hair. Our body is relatively hairless (disadvantage) and completely devoid of tactile hair. There are no other intermediate, partially hairy species known.
Humans have a thick layer of fat that monkeys do not have. Thanks to this, our skin more closely resembles that of a dolphin. The fat layer allows us to stay in cool water for a long time without the risk of hypothermia.
Human skin is rigidly attached to the muscular frame, which is characteristic only of marine mammals.
Humans are the only land creatures that can consciously hold their breath. This seemingly “insignificant detail” is very important, since an essential condition for the ability to speak is a high degree of conscious control of breathing, which we do not share with any other animal living on land.
Only humans have the whites of their eyes. All monkeys have completely dark eyes. The ability to determine someone else's intentions and emotions by their eyes is a uniquely human privilege. The contour of the human eye is unusually elongated in the horizontal direction, which increases the field of vision.
Humans have a distinct chin, but monkeys do not. In humans, the jaw is strengthened by the mental protrusion - a special ridge running along the lower edge of the jaw bone, and is unknown in any of the monkeys.
Most animals, including chimpanzees, have large mouths. We have a small mouth, with which we can articulate better. Wide and inverted lips are a characteristic feature of a person; Great apes have very thin lips.
Unlike the great apes, humans have a protruding nose with a well-developed elongated tip.
Only humans can grow long hair on their heads.
Among primates, only humans have blue eyes and curly hair.
We have a unique speech apparatus that provides the finest articulation and articulate speech.
In humans, the larynx occupies a much lower position in relation to the mouth than in monkeys. Due to this, our pharynx and mouth form a common “tube”, which plays an important role as a speech resonator. This ensures better resonance - a necessary condition for pronouncing vowel sounds.
Man has a special tongue - thicker, higher and more mobile than that of monkeys. And we have multiple muscle attachments to the hyoid bone.
Humans have fewer interconnected jaw muscles than apes - we don't have the bone structures to attach them (very important for the ability to speak).
Humans are the only primate whose face is not covered with hair.
The human skull does not have bony ridges or continuous brow ridges. The human skull has a vertical face with protruding nasal bones, but the monkey skull has a sloping face with flat nasal bones.
Different structure of teeth. We have a closed diastema, that is, the gap into which the protruding canines of primates enter; different shapes, inclinations and chewing surfaces of different teeth. In humans, the jaw is smaller and the dental arch is parabolic, the anterior section has a rounded shape. Monkeys have a U-shaped dental arch. Humans have shorter canines, whereas all apes have prominent canines.
Humans can exert precise motor control that apes lack and perform delicate physical operations thanks to a unique connection between nerves and muscles.
Humans have more motor neurons that control muscle movements than chimpanzees. However, to be truly effective, all of these motor neurons must be connected correctly, according to the overall plan. This plan, like many other features, is unique to humans.
The human hand is absolutely unique. The articulation in the human hand is much more complex and skillful than that of primates, as a result of which only a person can work with different tools. A person can gesture with a brush and also clench it into a fist. The human wrist is more flexible than the rigid wrist of a chimpanzee.
The thumb of our hand is well developed, strongly opposed to the rest and very mobile. Monkeys have hook-shaped hands with a short and weak thumb.
The human hand is capable of two unique compressions that monkeys cannot do - precision (for example, holding a baseball) and power (grabbing a bar with your hand). A chimpanzee cannot produce a strong squeeze, while the use of force is the main component of a forceful grip. Precision grip is used for movements that require precision and precision. Precision is achieved through the use of the thumb and multiple types of finger compressions. Human fingers are straight, shorter and more mobile than those of chimpanzees.
Only humans have true upright posture. Sometimes, when monkeys are carrying food, they can walk or run on two limbs. However, the distance they travel this way is quite limited. In addition, the way monkeys walk on two legs is completely different from how humans walk on two legs. The unique human approach requires a complex integration of the many skeletal and muscular features of our hips, legs and feet.
Humans are able to support our body weight on our feet while walking because our hips meet at our knees, forming a unique 9-degree bearing angle with the tibia (in other words, we have “knees”). Conversely, chimpanzees and gorillas have widely spaced, straight legs with a bearing angle of almost zero. When walking, these animals distribute the weight of their body on their feet, swaying their body from side to side and moving using the familiar “monkey gait”.
The special location of our ankle joint allows the tibia to make direct movements relative to the foot while walking.
The human femur has a special edge for muscle attachment (Linea aspera), which is absent in apes.
In humans, the position of the pelvis relative to the longitudinal axis of the body is unique; moreover, the structure of the pelvis itself differs significantly from the pelvis of monkeys - all this is necessary for upright walking. We have a relative width of the wings of the iliac bones of the pelvis) much greater than those of chimpanzees (If you look at them from above, these wings are curved forward like the handles of the steering knuckle on an airplane. Unlike humans, the wings of the iliac bones in monkeys protrude to the sides, like a steering wheel bicycle. With such a pelvis, a monkey is simply not able to walk like a person. Based on this feature alone, it can be argued that a person is radically different from a monkey.
Humans have unique knees - they can lock into full extension, making the kneecap stable, and are located closer to the midsagittal plane, being under the center of gravity of our body.
The human femur is longer than the chimpanzee femur and usually has a raised linea aspera that holds the linea aspera under the manubrium.
etc.................
When scientists began to find out exactly how, apart from the features of their anatomical structure, people differ from apes, for a long time their research gave an unequivocal answer: nothing. Experiments have shown that our closest relatives also have the rudiments of rational thinking, are able to identify themselves as individuals, empathize with their neighbors, and even create works of art.
In addition, chimpanzees and gorillas successfully mastered the languages created for them (signed Amslen and computer Yerkish) and happily chatted with people about various trifles. Well, there is now quite a lot of information that monkeys use tools and even make them. And the social organization of our elder brothers, as it turned out, is very reminiscent of human society - they have an army, and a police force, and even something like a court. And the vices of monkeys, oddly enough, are almost identical to those of the human race.
So, we had to admit that neither speech, nor rational thinking, nor language, nor the sense of beauty, nor tool activity, nor, finally, self-identification and the ability to empathize are purely human properties. Monkeys also have them, although, compared with us, they are in their infancy. In this regard, biologists more and more often recall the words of the great Charles Darwin that the differences between humans and monkeys are not qualitative, but rather quantitative.
However, recently zoologists from Queen Mary's College (UK) found out that we are still different from monkeys in some ways. It turns out that they lack such a concept as honesty. Apparently, the authors of the work believe, the development of their brain and social organization was still insufficient for the emergence of moral categories of this level. Although it is possible that honesty could have appeared in our older brothers, this behavioral stereotype was simply not fixed by natural selection.
Biologists found this out through a series of fairly simple experiments in which individuals of common chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus), that is, our closest relatives, participated. During the experiments, the monkeys had to perform a series of actions, after which they and their partner received fruit - this was the reward.
However, the very essence of the experiment was that honestly earned fruits had to be divided between themselves and another individual. It should be noted that although the sharing itself often occurred regardless of the intentions of individual chimpanzees (it was carried out by the experimenter without “consulting” with the monkey), each individual could still bring or not bring the experiment to completion, that is, accept the conditions of the sharing or protest them. And it was done like this: in some versions of the experiment, the fruit was divided fairly, that is, equally, and in some - dishonestly, that is, someone got more. Finally, the monkey had to pull a lever so that fair (or dishonest, depending on the situation) portions became available to him and his “colleague” in the experiment.
As a result, scientists discovered that neither common chimpanzees nor bonobos reflected on whether the reward for their work was fairly or unfairly divided. Moreover, when the monkeys themselves could participate in the sharing, they always took more fruit for themselves and left a smaller portion for their partner. And even when the division took place without their direct participation, our elder brothers did not pay any attention to the fact that their “colleague” got less, and did not express any protests about this.
After processing the results of the experiments, scientists came to the conclusion that, apparently, among the higher primates, honesty is inherent only in you and me, that is, in humans. It follows that honesty is one of the qualities that truly distinguishes man from ape. At the same time, one should not think at all that it is not present in other animals - for example, it has long been known that such behavior is valued as a virtue and is supported by natural selection in vampire bats (Desmodontinae).
Let me remind you that these bloodsuckers take care of each other in a very original way - mice that managed to get some blood during their night flights share it with other members of the colony, “transfusing” the blood they brought from mouth to mouth. At the same time, vampires have a very good memory - they remember who shared food with them and who, although they begged for food, never shared it themselves. As a result, subsequently none of the members of the colony share food with such deceivers and they simply die of hunger. As you can see, in this case, honesty is supported by natural selection.
But for some reason this did not happen among primates, and, apparently, only human ancestors began to regard honesty as a virtue. Although it is possible that this behavioral stereotype began to be supported by selection already at the later stages of human evolution, flocks formed by honest individuals are much more stable. It may also be that only Homo sapiens became ultimately “honest” and that is why he won the evolutionary race of his competitors.
Some may ask me a question - why do I think that in the human population honesty is maintained by selection? To prove the opposite, there are many examples of people trying to act dishonestly whenever the opportunity presents itself. Without a doubt, all this is true, however, nevertheless, I dare to assure you that, after all, for a person, honesty is the norm, and not the exception. And this is confirmed by numerous experiments.
Of course, in the lives of each of us there have been (and will be) moments when he acted dishonestly. This happens especially often against the backdrop of difficult Russian reality. However, such cases are not indicative - most often people cheat under pressure of circumstances (that is, under not entirely normal conditions, when such behavior is necessary for survival). But if this pressure is removed, it turns out that we are still more inclined to be honest than to deceive.
This was revealed by such interesting experiments of psychologists as the MMPI or Cattell tests. During them, the subject is asked questions that differ in form, but are nevertheless similar in content. So, first they may ask: “Do you love your brother?” And a few questions later: “Have you ever hated your brother?” Based on the extent to which the answers to different versions of a particular question coincide, it is assessed how honest the participant in the experiment was.
So, statistics show that most people prefer to answer honestly - their answers coincide by more than 95 percent. At the same time, any pressure from circumstances is excluded in the experiment - everything is done to ensure that its participants perceive the test as a fun game. It turns out that there is no benefit from dishonest behavior. And the fact that in such conditions people prefer not to deceive suggests that a person’s honesty is a behavioral stereotype supported by selection.
By the way, sharing games, similar to those that British zoologists played with chimpanzees, are organized by psychologists among people. The subjects are given a reward in the form of money, which must be divided (or express their opinion about the division made by the experimenter). At the same time, this money is very conditional - it is either pieces of paper or some kind of virtual objects. So, unlike monkeys, most people are satisfied with an honest division of what they earn and always protest against what they consider to be a dishonest way of dividing the reward.
As you can see, honesty is still characteristic of people as representatives of a biological species. And it is precisely this property that distinguishes us from other monkeys. Therefore, we can now say with confidence that, apparently, man descended from a very honest monkey...
The fact that the monkey is a close relative of humans has been known for a long time; the chimpanzee, among all monkeys, is our closest relative. When studying DNA, the origin of humans from ape-like ancestors is fully confirmed. Genetic differences at the DNA level between humans average 1 nucleotide in 1000 (i.e. 0.1%), between humans and chimpanzees - 1 nucleotide in 100 (i.e. 1%).
In terms of genome size, humans and higher primates do not differ from each other, but they differ in the number of chromosomes - humans have one less pair. As was discussed in previous lectures, a person has 23 pairs of chromosomes, i.e. a total of 46. Chimpanzees have 48 chromosomes, one pair more. During the process of evolution, in human ancestors, two different chromosomes of primates were combined into one. Similar changes in the number of chromosomes occur in the evolution of other species. They may be important for the genetic isolation of a group during the process of speciation, since in most cases individuals with different numbers of chromosomes do not produce offspring.
The time of divergence of species, or in other words, the time of existence of the last common ancestor for two species, can be determined in several ways. The first is this: they date the bone remains and determine who these remains could belong to, when the common ancestor of certain species could have lived. But there are not so many bone remains of supposed human ancestors that it is possible to confidently restore and date the complete sequence of forms in the process of anthropogenesis. Now they use another method of dating the time of divergence between humans and other primates. To do this, count the number of mutations that have accumulated in the same genes in each of the branches during their separate evolution. The rate at which these mutations accumulate is more or less known. The rate of accumulation of mutations is determined by the number of differences in the DNA of those species for which paleontological dating of the divergence of species based on bone remains is known. The time of divergence between humans and chimpanzees, according to various estimates, varies from 5.4 to 7 million years ago.
You already know that the human genome has been completely read (sequenced). Last year it was reported that the chimpanzee genome had also been read. By comparing the genomes of humans and chimpanzees, scientists are trying to identify the genes that “make us human.” This would be easy to do if, after the separation of the branches, only human genes evolved, but this is not so, chimpanzees also evolved, and mutations also accumulated in their genes. Therefore, in order to understand in which branch the mutation occurred - in humans or in chimpanzees - we also have to compare them with the DNA of other species, gorilla, orangutan, mouse. That is, what only chimpanzees have and, for example, orangutans do not, are purely “chimpanzine” nucleotide substitutions. Thus, by comparing the nucleotide sequences of different primate species, we can identify those mutations that occurred only in the line of our ancestors. There are now about a dozen genes known that “make us human.”
Differences have been discovered between humans and other animals in the genes of olfactory receptors. In humans, many olfactory receptor genes are inactivated. The DNA fragment itself is present, but mutations appear in it that inactivate this gene: either it is not transcribed, or it is transcribed, but a non-functional product is formed from it. As soon as selection to maintain the functionality of a gene ceases, mutations begin to accumulate in it, disrupting the reading frame, inserting stop codons, etc. That is, mutations appear in all genes, and the mutation rate is approximately constant. It is possible to maintain a gene functioning only due to the fact that mutations that disrupt important functions are rejected by selection. Such genes inactivated by mutations, which can be recognized by their nucleotide sequence, but have accumulated mutations that make it inactive, are called pseudogenes. In total, the mammalian genome contains about 1000 sequences corresponding to olfactory receptor genes. Of these, 20% of pseudogenes are in mice, a third (28-26%) are inactivated in chimpanzees and macaques, and more than half (54%) are pseudogenes in humans.
Pseudogenes are also found in humans among the genes that encode the family of keratin proteins that make up hair. Since we have less hair than chimpanzees, it is clear that some of these genes could be inactivated.
When they talk about the difference between a person and a monkey, they primarily highlight the development of mental abilities and the ability to speak. A gene associated with the ability to speak has been found. This gene was identified by studying a family with a hereditary speech disorder: an inability to learn to form phrases in accordance with the rules of grammar, combined with a mild degree of mental retardation. The slide shows the pedigree of this family: circles are women, squares are men, filled figures are sick family members. The mutation associated with the disease is in the gene FOXP2(forkhead box P2). It is quite difficult to study gene functions in humans; it is easier to do this in mice. They use the so-called knockout technique. The gene is specifically inactivated, if you know the specific nucleotide sequence, then this is possible, after which this gene does not work in the mouse. In mice in which the gene is turned off FOXP2, the formation of one of the brain zones during the embryonic period was disrupted. Apparently, in humans this zone is associated with the development of speech. This gene encodes a transcription factor. Recall that at the embryonic stage of development, transcription factors turn on a group of genes at certain stages that control the transformation of cells into what they should turn into.
To see how this gene evolved, it was sequenced in different species: mouse, macaque, orangutan, gorilla and chimpanzee, and then compared these nucleotide sequences with human ones.
It turned out that this gene is very conserved. Among all primates, only the orangutan had one amino acid substitution, and the mouse had one substitution. On the slide, two numbers are visible for each line, the first shows the number of amino acid substitutions, the second - the number of so-called silent (synonymous) nucleotide substitutions, most often these are substitutions in the third position of the codon that do not affect the encoded amino acid. It can be seen that silent substitutions accumulate in all lines, that is, mutations in a given locus are not prohibited if they do not lead to amino acid substitutions. This does not mean that mutations in the protein-coding part did not appear; they most likely appeared, but were eliminated by selection, so we cannot detect them. The lower part of the figure schematically depicts the amino acid sequence of the protein; the places where two human amino acid substitutions occurred, which apparently affected the functional characteristics of the protein, are marked. FOXP2.
If a protein evolves at a constant rate (the number of nucleotide substitutions per unit time is constant), then the number of substitutions in the branches will be proportional to the time during which the substitutions accumulated. The time of separation of the line of rodents (mice) and primates is assumed to be 90 million years, the time of separation of humans and chimpanzees is 5.5 million years. Then the number of substitutions m accumulated in total in the mouse line and in the primate line between the point of separation with the mouse and the point of separation between humans and chimpanzees (see figure), compared with the number of substitutions h in the human line, should be 31.7 times greater. If more substitutions have accumulated in the human line than expected at a constant rate of gene evolution, then evolution is said to be accelerating. How many times evolution is accelerated is calculated using a simple formula:
A. I.= ( h/5.5) / [ m/(2 x 90 - 5.5)]= 31.7 h/ m
Where is A.I. (Acceleration Index) – acceleration index.
Now we need to evaluate whether the deviation of the number of substitutions in a person’s line from is within the limits of chance, or whether the deviation is significantly higher than expected. The probability that 2 amino acid substitutions will appear in the human line within 5.5 million years, given that the probability of the occurrence of substitutions is estimated for the mouse line as 1/(90+84.6)=1/174.6. In this case, the binomial distribution is used B(h + m, Th/(Th+Tm)), where h is the number of substitutions in the human line, m is the number of substitutions in the mouse line: Th=5.5, Tm=174.5.
Despite the fact that the appearance of humans and monkeys is completely opposite, there should be no doubt about their genetic similarity. Indeed, monkeys perceive everything completely differently; they see and hear differently than we do. However, the fact remains: the genetic similarity between apes and humans is approximately 98%.
Factors that unite man and ape
One of the most important aspects that unites humans and monkeys is that they eat not only plants, but also meat, and for this reason they can be considered omnivores. Of course, if we compare humans and chimpanzees, for example, it should be noted that the latter are most often content with ordinary fruits rather than killing some other mammals.
Both of these species are bipedal creatures and, among other things, move on two legs. Again, some nuances are provided in this matter. So, for example, people begin to walk right from childhood, while monkeys prefer to move on all fours and only occasionally, for example, in order to look further, stand on both limbs. What unites us with monkeys is also our eyes. Moreover, if in humans the iris of the eyes can only be white, then in monkeys it often acquires a dark brown tint. 
Aspects invisible to the human eye that distinguish humans from apes
I think you yourself understand that man is much smarter than a monkey. This aspect is quite conditional, since the volume of the human brain is several times larger than that which monkeys can boast of. In order to confirm the above, we note for you that in humans, the volume of the brain is 1600 cm3, while in humans this figure is only 600 cm3.
Among other things, according to recent research, it should be noted that, unlike the monkey brain, humans have a lateral frontal pole of the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible not only for strategic planning, but also for making certain decisions. Hearing also distinguishes between apes and humans. So, if human hearing is particularly sensitive to the perception of sound frequencies, then the vast majority of monkeys are not able to remember or even guess a sequence of sounds that would be presented in different tones. 
Significant differences are also observed in the vocal capabilities of both of these species. The position occupied by the human larynx is much lower than that provided for in any modern primate species. This forms a so-called “common tube” in a person, which in the future can provide a person with exceptional capabilities of his speech resonator.
What external nuances distinguish humans and monkeys from each other?
The most noticeable such nuance can rightfully be considered that in monkeys, the hairline is much more pronounced. It covers almost the entire body of a monkey, which cannot be said about a person. We have completely different skeletal structures. If we do not focus on this aspect of our attention, it should be noted that our torso is much shorter. This is why monkeys have long legs and short arms. The human spine has S-shape. It exhibits distinct cervical and lumbar curves, while the spine found in monkeys does not even have a curve. Some nuances are also observed with the number of ribs in both of these species.
So, if a person has 12 pairs of ribs, then for monkeys you would need to add one more pair to this figure. If we are talking specifically about this part of the body, then in order to complement the above, we consider it necessary to note that the human rib cage is much deeper and has the shape of a barrel, and not a cone, as is the case with monkeys. In addition, monkeys have feet similar to their hands. With them, the thumb is mobile and is always directed to the side and is always opposed to the other fingers. As for a person, his thumb is always directed forward and is not opposed to the rest.
In 1739, the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, in his System of Nature (Systema Naturae), classified humans - Homo sapiens - as one of the primates. In this system, primates are an order in the class Mammals. Linnaeus divided this order into two suborders: prosimians (including lemurs and tarsiers) and higher primates. The latter include apes, gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans. Primates share many common characteristics that distinguish them from other mammals.
It is generally accepted that Man as a species separated from the animal world within the framework of geological time quite recently - approximately 1.8-2 million years ago at the beginning of the Quaternary period. This is evidenced by the finds of bones in the Olduvai Gorge in western Africa.
Charles Darwin argued that the ancestral species of Man was one of the ancient species of apes that lived in trees and were most similar to modern chimpanzees.
F. Engels formulated the thesis that the ancient ape turned into Homo sapiens thanks to work - “labor created Man.”
Similarities between humans and monkeys
The relationship between humans and animals is especially convincing when comparing their embryonic development. In its early stages, the human embryo is difficult to distinguish from the embryos of other vertebrates. At the age of 1.5 - 3 months, it has gill slits, and the spine ends in a tail. The similarity between human and monkey embryos remains for a very long time. Specific (species) human characteristics arise only at the very latest stages of development. Rudiments and atavisms serve as important evidence of the kinship between humans and animals. There are about 90 rudiments in the human body: the coccygeal bone (the remnant of a reduced tail); fold in the corner of the eye (remnant of the nictitating membrane); fine body hair (fur residue); process of the cecum - appendix, etc. Atavisms (unusually highly developed rudiments) include the external tail, with which people are very rarely born; abundant hair on the face and body; multiple nipples, highly developed fangs, etc.
A striking similarity of the chromosomal apparatus was discovered. The diploid number of chromosomes (2n) in all apes is 48, in humans - 46. The difference in chromosome numbers is due to the fact that one human chromosome is formed by the fusion of two chromosomes, homologous to those of chimpanzees. A comparison of human and chimpanzee proteins showed that in 44 proteins the amino acid sequences differed by only 1%. Many human and chimpanzee proteins, such as growth hormone, are interchangeable.
The DNA of humans and chimpanzees contains at least 90% of similar genes.
Differences between humans and monkeys
- true upright posture and associated structural features of the body;
— S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves;
- low, widened pelvis;
- chest flattened in the anteroposterior direction;
- legs elongated compared to the arms;
- arched foot with massive and adducted big toe;
- many features of the muscles and location of internal organs;
— the hand is capable of performing a wide variety of high-precision movements;
- the skull is higher and rounded, does not have continuous brow ridges;
- the cerebral part of the skull dominates to a large extent over the facial part (high forehead, weak jaws);
- small fangs;
- the chin protuberance is clearly defined;
— the human brain is approximately 2.5 times larger than the brain of apes in volume and 3-4 times larger in mass;
— a person has a highly developed cerebral cortex, in which the most important centers of the psyche and speech are located;
- only humans have articulate speech, and therefore they are characterized by the development of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes of the brain;
- the presence of a special head muscle in the larynx.
Walking on two legs
Upright walking is the most important sign of a person. The rest of the primates, with a few exceptions, live primarily in trees and are quadrupeds, or, as they sometimes say, “four-armed.”
Some apes (baboons) have adapted to a terrestrial existence, but they walk on all fours like the vast majority of mammal species.
Great apes (gorillas) are primarily terrestrial dwellers, walking in a partially upright position, but often supported by the backs of their hands.
The vertical position of the human body is associated with many secondary adaptive changes: the arms are shorter relative to the legs, wide flat feet and short toes, the originality of the sacroiliac joint, the S-shaped curve of the spine that shock-absorbs when walking, a special shock-absorbing connection between the head and the spinal column.
Brain enlargement
An enlarged brain puts Man in a special position in relation to other primates. Compared to the average chimpanzee brain size, the modern human brain is three times larger. In Homo habilis, the first of the hominids, it was twice as large as in chimpanzees. Humans have significantly more nerve cells and their arrangement has changed. Unfortunately, fossil skulls do not provide sufficient comparative material to evaluate many of these structural changes. It is likely that there is an indirect relationship between brain enlargement and its development and upright posture.
Structure of teeth
The transformations that have occurred in the structure of teeth are usually associated with changes in the way of eating of ancient man. These include: reduction in the volume and length of the fangs; closure of the diastema, i.e. the gap that includes the protruding canines in primates; changes in the shape, inclination and chewing surface of different teeth; development of a parabolic dental arch, in which the anterior section has a rounded shape, and the lateral sections expand outward, in contrast to the U-shaped dental arch of monkeys.
During the evolution of hominids, brain enlargement, changes in cranial joints and transformation of teeth were accompanied by significant changes in the structure of various elements of the skull and face and their proportions.
Differences at the biomolecular level
The use of molecular biological methods has made it possible to take a new approach to determining both the time of the appearance of hominids and their relationships with other primate families. The methods used include: immunological analysis, i.e. comparison of the immune response of different species of primates to the introduction of the same protein (albumin) - the more similar the reaction, the closer the relationship; DNA hybridization, which allows one to estimate the degree of relatedness by the degree of matching of paired bases in double strands of DNA taken from different species;
electrophoretic analysis, in which the degree of similarity of proteins of different animal species and, therefore, the proximity of these species is assessed by the mobility of the isolated proteins in an electric field;
Protein sequencing, namely the comparison of the amino acid sequences of a protein in different animal species, which makes it possible to determine the number of changes in the coding DNA responsible for the identified differences in the structure of a given protein. The listed methods showed a very close relationship between species such as gorilla, chimpanzee and man. For example, one protein sequencing study found that the differences in DNA structure between chimpanzees and humans were only 1%.
Traditional explanation of anthropogenesis
The common ancestors of apes and humans - gregarious monkeys - lived in trees in tropical forests. Their transition to a terrestrial lifestyle, caused by climate cooling and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright walking. The straightened position of the body and the transfer of the center of gravity caused a restructuring of the skeleton and the formation of an arched S-shaped spinal column, which gave it flexibility and the ability to absorb shock. An arched springy foot was formed, which was also a method of shock absorption during upright walking. The pelvis expanded, which provided greater stability to the body when walking upright (lowering the center of gravity). The chest has become wider and shorter. The jaw apparatus became lighter from the use of food processed over fire. The forelimbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became more free and varied, and their functions became more complex.
The transition from using objects to making tools is the boundary between ape and man. The evolution of the hand proceeded through the natural selection of mutations useful for work activity. The first tools were hunting and fishing tools. Along with plant foods, higher calorie meat foods began to be used more widely. Food cooked over fire reduced the load on the chewing and digestive apparatus, and therefore the parietal crest, to which the chewing muscles are attached in monkeys, lost its importance and gradually disappeared during the selection process. The intestines became shorter.
The herd lifestyle, as labor activity developed and the need to exchange signals, led to the development of articulate speech. Slow selection of mutations transformed the undeveloped larynx and oral apparatus of monkeys into human speech organs. The root cause of the emergence of language was the social and labor process. Work, and then articulate speech, are the factors that controlled the genetically determined evolution of the human brain and sense organs. Concrete ideas about surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, and mental and speech abilities developed. Higher nervous activity was formed, and articulate speech developed.
The transition to upright walking, a herd lifestyle, a high level of brain and mental development, the use of objects as tools for hunting and protection - these are the prerequisites for humanization, on the basis of which work activity, speech and thinking developed and improved.
Australopithecus afarensis - probably evolved from some late Dryopithecus about 4 million years ago. Fossils of Australopithecus afarensis have been discovered in Omo (Ethiopia) and Laetoli (Tanzania). This creature looked like a small but erect chimpanzee weighing 30 kg. Their brains were slightly larger than those of chimpanzees. The face was like that of apes: with a low forehead, a supraorbital ridge, a flat nose, a cut off chin, but protruding jaws with massive molars. The front teeth had gaps, apparently because they were used as tools for grasping.
Australopithecus africanus settled on Earth approximately 3 million years ago and ceased to exist about a million years ago. It probably descended from Australopithecus afarensis, and some authors have suggested that it was the ancestor of the chimpanzee. Height 1 - 1.3 m. Weight 20-40 kg. The lower part of the face protruded forward, but not as much as in apes. Some skulls show traces of the occipital crest, to which strong neck muscles were attached. The brain was no larger than that of a gorilla, but casts indicate that the structure of the brain was somewhat different from that of apes. In terms of the relative size of the brain and body, Africanus occupies an intermediate position between modern apes and ancient people. The structure of the teeth and jaws suggests that this ape-man chewed plant food, but perhaps also gnawed the meat of animals killed by predators. Experts dispute its ability to make tools. The oldest record of Africanus is a 5.5-million-year-old jaw fragment from Lotegama in Kenya, while the youngest specimen is 700,000 years old. Findings indicate that Africanus also lived in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania.
Australopithecus gobustus (Mighty Australopithecus) had a height of 1.5-1.7 m and a weight of about 50 kg. It was larger and better physically developed than Australopithecus africanus. As we have already said, some authors believe that both of these “southern monkeys” are males and females, respectively, of the same species, but most experts do not support this assumption. Compared to Africanus, it had a larger and flatter skull, which accommodated a larger brain - about 550 cc. cm, and a wider face. Powerful muscles were attached to the high cranial crest, which moved the massive jaws. The front teeth were the same as those of Africanus, and the molars were larger. At the same time, the molars of most specimens known to us are usually very worn, despite the fact that they were covered with a thick layer of durable enamel. This may indicate that the animals ate solid, tough food, in particular cereal grains.
Apparently, the mighty Australopithecus appeared about 2.5 million years ago. All the remains of representatives of this species were found in South Africa, in caves where they were probably dragged by predatory animals. This species became extinct about 1.5 million years ago. Beuys's Australopithecus may have originated from him. The structure of the skull of the mighty Australopithecus suggests that it was the ancestor of the gorilla.
Australopithecus boisei had a height of 1.6-1.78 m and a weight of 60-80 kg, small incisors designed for biting and huge molars capable of grinding food. The time of its existence is from 2.5 to 1 million years ago.
Their brain was the same size as that of the mighty Australopithecus, that is, about three times smaller than our brain. These creatures walked upright. With their powerful physique they resembled a gorilla. As with gorillas, males were apparently significantly larger than females. Like the gorilla, Beuys's Australopithecus had a large skull with supraorbital ridges and a central bony ridge that served to attach powerful jaw muscles. But compared to the gorilla, Beuys's crest was smaller and more forward, his face was flatter, and his fangs were less developed. Due to the huge molars and premolars, this animal received the nickname “nutcracker.” But these teeth could not exert strong pressure on food and were adapted for chewing not very hard material, such as leaves. Since broken pebbles were found along with the bones of Australopithecus Beuys, which is 1.8 million years old, it can be assumed that these creatures could have used the stone for practical purposes. However, it is possible that representatives of this species of monkeys fell victim to their contemporary - a person who succeeded in using stone tools.
A little criticism of classical ideas about the origin of Man
If man's ancestors were hunters and ate meat, then why are his jaws and teeth weak for raw meat, and his intestines relative to the body are almost twice as long as those of carnivores? The jaws of prezinjanthropes were already significantly reduced, although they did not use fire and could not soften food on it. What did human ancestors eat?
When there is danger, birds fly into the air, ungulates run away, monkeys take refuge in trees or rocks. How did the animal ancestors of people, with slow movement and the absence of tools other than pathetic sticks and stones, escape from predators?
M.F. Nesturkh and B.F. Porshnev openly include the mysterious reasons for the loss of hair in people as unresolved problems of anthropogenesis. After all, even in the tropics it is cold at night and all monkeys retain their fur. Why did our ancestors lose it?
Why did a cap of hair remain on a person’s head while it was being reduced on most of the body?
Why does a person’s chin and nose protrude forward with the nostrils turned down for some reason?
The speed of transformation of Pithecanthropus into modern man (Homo sapiens), as is usually believed, in 4-5 millennia, is incredible for evolution. Biologically this is inexplicable.
A number of anthropological researchers believe that our distant ancestors were australopithecines who lived on the planet 1.5-3 million years ago, but australopithecines were land monkeys, and like modern chimpanzees they lived in savannas. They could not be the ancestors of Man, since they lived at the same time as him. There is evidence that Australopithecines, who lived in West Africa 2 million years ago, were hunted by ancient people.
Education
Apes and humans - similarities and differences. Types and characteristics of modern apes
Apes (anthropomorphids, or hominoids) belong to the superfamily of narrow-nosed primates. These, in particular, include two families: hominids and gibbons. The body structure of narrow-nosed primates is similar to that of humans. This similarity between humans and apes is the main one that allows them to be classified as one taxon.
Evolution
Apes first appeared at the end of the Oligocene in the Old World. This was approximately thirty million years ago. Among the ancestors of these primates, the most famous are primitive gibbon-like individuals - propliopithecus, from the tropics of Egypt. It was from them that Dryopithecus, Gibbon and Pliopithecus arose. In the Miocene, there was a sharp increase in the number and diversity of species of apes that existed at that time.
At that time, there was an active spread of Dryopithecus and other hominoids throughout Europe and Asia. Among the Asian individuals were the predecessors of orangutans. In accordance with the data of molecular biology, humans and apes split into two trunks about 8-6 million years ago.
Fossil finds
The oldest known apes are Rukvapithecus, Camoyapithecus, Morotopithecus, Limnopithecus, Ugandapithecus and Ramapithecus.
Some scientists are of the opinion that modern apes are descendants of Parapithecus.
Differences between humans and monkeys.
But this point of view has insufficient justification due to the paucity of the remains of the latter. As a relict hominoid we mean the mythical creature - Bigfoot.
Video on the topic
Description of primates
Apes have a larger body than that of apes. Narrow-nosed primates do not have a tail, ischial calluses (only gibbons have small ones), or cheek pouches.
A characteristic feature of hominoids is their method of movement. Instead of moving on all their limbs along the branches, they move under the branches mainly on their arms. This method of movement is called brachiation. Adaptation to its use provoked some anatomical changes: more flexible and longer arms, a flattened chest in the anteroposterior direction.
All apes are able to stand on their hind limbs, freeing their forelimbs. All types of hominoids are characterized by developed facial expressions, the ability to think and analyze. 
Difference between humans and apes
Short-nosed primates have significantly more hair, which covers almost the entire body, with the exception of small areas. Despite the similarity between humans and apes in skeletal structure, the arms of humans are not as well developed and are significantly shorter in length.
At the same time, the legs of narrow-nosed primates are less developed, weaker and shorter. Apes move easily through trees. Often individuals swing on branches. During walking, all limbs are typically used.
Some individuals prefer the “walking on their fists” method of movement. In this case, the body weight is transferred to the fingers, which are gathered into a fist. Differences between humans and apes also manifest themselves in the level of intelligence. Despite the fact that narrow-nosed individuals are considered one of the most intelligent primates, their mental inclinations are not as developed as those of humans.
However, almost everyone has the ability to learn.
Habitat
Apes inhabit the tropical forests of Asia and Africa. All existing species of primates are characterized by their own habitat and way of life. Chimpanzees, for example, including dwarf ones, live on the ground and in trees. These representatives of primates are distributed in almost all types of African forests and open savannas.
However, some species (bonobos, for example) are found only in the humid tropics of the Congo Basin. The eastern and western lowland gorilla subspecies are more common in humid African forests, while representatives of the mountain species prefer temperate forests.
These primates rarely climb trees due to their massive size and spend almost all their time on the ground. Gorillas live in groups, and the number of members changes constantly. Orangutans, on the contrary, are loners, as a rule. They inhabit swampy and humid forests, climb trees well, and move from branch to branch somewhat slowly, but quite deftly. Their arms are very long - reaching all the way to their ankles.
Speech
Since ancient times, people have sought to establish contact with animals.
Many scientists have studied the issues of teaching speech to great apes. However, the work did not produce the expected results. Primates can only produce isolated sounds that bear little resemblance to words, and their vocabulary in general is very limited, especially compared to talking parrots.
The fact is that narrow-nosed primates lack certain sound-producing elements in the oral cavity in organs corresponding to humans. This is what explains the inability of individuals to develop skills in pronouncing modulated sounds. Monkeys express their emotions in different ways. So, for example, a call to pay attention to them is with the sound “uh”, passionate desire is manifested by panting, threat or fear is manifested by a piercing, sharp cry.
One individual recognizes the mood of another, looks at the expression of emotions, adopting certain manifestations. To convey any information, facial expressions, gestures, and posture are the main mechanisms. With this in mind, the researchers tried to start talking to the monkeys using sign language, which is used by deaf and mute people.
Young monkeys learn signs quite quickly. After a fairly short period, people were able to talk with animals.
Perception of beauty
The researchers noted, not without pleasure, that monkeys love to draw. In this case, primates will act quite carefully. If you give a monkey paper, a brush and paints, then in the process of depicting something, he will try not to go beyond the edge of the sheet.
In addition, animals are quite skillful in dividing the plane of paper into several parts. Many scientists consider the paintings of primates to be strikingly dynamic, rhythmic, full of harmony in both color and form.
More than once it was possible to show the work of animals at art exhibitions. Researchers of primate behavior note that monkeys have an aesthetic sense, although it manifests itself in a rudimentary form. For example, while observing animals living in the wild, they saw how individuals sat at sunset on the edge of the forest and watched the sun set in fascination.
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Greater primates or monkeys
Representatives of this order, which includes the family of upright primates (hominids), the only modern representative of which is Homo sapiens, are characterized by a strong development of the cerebral hemispheres with a cortex complicated by numerous grooves and convolutions. The sense of smell is poorly developed, so the noses are shortened, and three-dimensional color vision becomes the main sense organ.
Many monkeys have no hair on the facial part of the skull and highly developed facial muscles, which provides very expressive facial expressions.
The golden marmoset is decorated with bright fur and a lush mane
Broad-nosed monkeys
Monkeys living in America are called broad-nosed monkeys due to the structure of the nasal septum.
They lead an arboreal lifestyle and have a long, prehensile tail, which they use as a “fifth” limb. The smallest and most primitive of the broad-nosed monkeys are marmosets, weighing only 400-500 g. They spend their entire lives in trees, feeding on fruits and insects. There are about 30 species of marmosets, and due to their striking appearance, they are often caught for zoos and private collections.
With a cry, the howler asserts its right to a certain territory
The largest broad-nosed monkeys are howler monkeys, weighing 6-8 kg.
Howler monkeys live in the treetops in large herds of 20-40 individuals. They got their name for their ability to produce a very loud roar, reminiscent of the roar of predatory animals. A herd of howler monkeys creates a noise that can be heard for many kilometers.
Narrow-nosed monkeys
A female orangutan gives birth to one baby every 6 years, and feeds it with milk until the age of 4.
Narrow-nosed monkeys live in Asia and Africa.
This group includes 2 superfamilies: monkeys and hominoids (humanoids). Hominoids include the distinctive gibbons, the great apes (gorillas, orangutans and chimpanzees), as well as hominids, or humans, with a single representative - Homo sapiens. Marmosets are the smallest of the narrow-nosed monkeys.
In search of food, they often descend from trees to the ground and can visit plantations. Monkeys adapt well in captivity.
Gorillas are the largest apes (the height of adult males reaches 2 m and weight more than 300 kg). Two species of gorillas live in forested and mountainous regions of Equatorial Africa. Gorillas are strict vegetarians; they feed on the stems and roots of plants, in search of which they constantly roam the forest. They live in family groups consisting of females with newborn cubs and adolescents and an adult male - the leader with gray hair on his back.
Despite their menacing appearance, gorillas have a calm and peaceful disposition.
Chimpanzees are closer to humans in intelligence than gorillas and orangutans.
Two species of these monkeys (common and pygmy chimpanzees) are common in equatorial Africa. They lead a terrestrial lifestyle, but climb trees well. They eat both plant and animal foods. They live in large groups led by a leader.
Chimpanzees can use simple tools: pick out termites with a stick, make a sponge out of leaves to collect water for drinking. Chimpanzees have very developed facial expressions; they can smile and laugh. They communicate with each other using a variety of gestures and sounds.
Darwin's theory
Charles Darwin in his work “The Descent of Man and Natural Selection” suggested that the ancestors of humans are the apes that inhabited our planet many millions of years ago.
Despite numerous finds confirming Darwin's theory, not all the mysteries of our origin have been solved. In 1974, the fossilized remains of a very ancient hominid were discovered in Ethiopia. It was a female, named Lucy.
Write down the words that define the difference between a human and a monkey in terms of body structure. Urgent!!!
She lived 3.5 million years ago, her height was only 105 cm, her brain was very small, but she walked on her hind legs.
Before Lucy's discovery, it was believed that our ancestors switched to upright walking at a higher stage of development in order to free their hands to use tools. Lucy's discovery proved that the most ancient hominids lived in savannas, led a terrestrial lifestyle and stood on their feet to have a better view.
Comparative human anatomy
and great apes
"The Cambridge Guide To Prehistoric Man"
by David Lambert and the Diagram Group, 1991
A comparison of anatomical features convincingly suggests that the human body is nothing more than the body of an ape, specially adapted for walking on two legs.
Our arms and shoulders are not much different from the arms and shoulders of chimpanzees. However, unlike apes, our legs are longer than our arms, and our pelvis, spine, hips, legs, feet, and toes have undergone changes that allow us to stand and walk with our bodies upright.
(Large apes can stand on two legs with only their knees bent and walk on their feet, staggering from side to side.)
Adapting our feet to this new function meant that we could no longer use our big toes like our thumbs. The thumbs on our hands are comparatively longer than those of the great apes, and can, when bent over the palm, touch their tips to the tips of other fingers, which provides the precision of grasping that we need when making and using tools.
Walking on two legs, greater intelligence and a varied diet all contributed to the differences in the skull, brain, jaws and teeth between humans and apes.
Compared to body size, the human brain and cranium are much larger than those of the monkey; in addition, the human brain is more highly organized, and its comparatively larger frontal, parietal and temporal lobes jointly carry out the functions of thinking, controlling social behavior and human speech.
The jaws of modern omnivores are significantly shorter and weaker than those of great apes, which eat a largely vegetarian diet.
difference between humans and apes in body structure
Monkeys have shock-absorbing supraorbital ridges and bony cranial ridges, to which powerful jaw muscles are attached. Humans lack the thick neck muscles that support the protruding snout in adult monkeys. The rows of our teeth are arranged in the form of a parabola, differing in this from the dental rows of apes arranged in the shape of the Latin letter U; in addition, the fangs of monkeys are much larger, and the crowns of the molars are much higher than ours.
But human molars are covered with a thicker layer of enamel, which makes them more wear-resistant and allows them to chew harder food.
Differences in the structure of the tongue and pharynx between humans and chimpanzees allow us to produce a greater variety of sounds, although facial features can take on different expressions in both humans and chimpanzees.
