Assimilation

Depending on the position in the word, some sounds noticeably change their pronunciation.

Assimilation is called the qualitative assimilation of one sound to another. Assimilation exists in order to make it more convenient to pronounce sounds at the junction of words and in the middle of a word. In Russian, assimilation is mainly manifested by the loss of sounds, for example, in the words "hello" and "ladder" the selected sounds are not pronounced.

In English, assimilation is manifested by moving the place where the barrier is formed, i.e. consonants that are pronounced on the alveoli [ s, z, n, t] before the sounds [ and, p] move to the gap between the teeth to make it more convenient to pronounce the interdental ones following the alveolar [ and, p].

For instance:

If we take as a unit of comparison the so-called. standard pronunciation A. Yaz. in England, the colonies and the USA, not taking into account the peculiarities of modern dialects and adverbs of the USA, we can note: 1. the almost complete absence of “soft”, i.e., palatalized consonants, 2. the absence of muting, with rare exceptions, final consonants; so for example head is pronounced with the final d, not t, as this combination of sounds would sound in Russian, 3. assimilation and dissimilation in A. Yaz. much less often than in Russian, 4. the stress in a word, as well as in Russian, is expiratory, but unlike Russian, it does not move from one syllable to another, but is attached to a specific syllable. The difference in the articulatory base and a number of phonetic skills makes it difficult to master the sound form of the English language.

English Sound Chart II

Henry Sweet

G. Sweet (Henry Sweet, 1845-1912) began to be interested in Germanic philology in his youth, and then became acquainted with Bell's "Visible Speech", which aroused in him an interest in phonetics. He studied at Oxford and, even before completing the course, began to study the historical phonetics of the English language, then studied English dialects and the pronunciation of living European languages. He owns a number of articles on the phonetics of Danish, Russian, Portuguese, Swedish and some other languages. Later, Sweet wrote several works on the historical phonetics of the English language, at the same time he did a lot of teaching and published a number of manuals for learning English, in which his pedagogical gift was manifested. However, Sweet was not an easy character (he served as a prototype for Professor Higgins from Pygmalion by B. Shaw); he was sincere and frankly expressed his opinions, often negative, without caring about the impression that his statements make. Sweet's character traits prevented him from making friends and did not allow him to take a position in the scientific hierarchy befitting his knowledge: he did not consider it necessary to seek protection from the right people, which is why his two attempts to get a chair at Oxford failed. At the same time, Suit's scientific contributions were highly valued in England. He was president of the English Philological Society and is considered the founder of the English phonetic school, the founder of English dialectology, and the creator of the best (at the time) description of English pronunciation.

Sweet's main phonetic work, in which he clearly stated his views and developed Bell's ideas regarding the classification of vowels, appeared in 1877. This is the Textbook of Phonetics (its full title is Handbook of phonetics, including a popular exposition of spelling reform. 1877). The book in a revised form, under the title "Fundamentals of Phonetics" ("A Primer of Phonetics") was published three more times, the last time in 1906, and in 1908 a description of English phonetics was published, containing a lot of information of a general phonetic nature - "Sounds of English language” (The sounds of English. An introduction to phonetics). Sweet is also the author of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Phonetics. Sweet's general approach to the basic problems of phonetics and his adherence to Bell's views on the articulatory classification of speech sounds remained constant; the changes concerned only some particulars, in connection with new information in phonetic literature. Thus, in the latest edition of Fundamentals of Phonetics, he took into account the data of Fietor, Sievers and Jespersen.

Sweet develops the theory of glides as transitional sounds in combinations vowel + consonant, consonant + vowel, rightly emphasizing (in the Fundamentals) that voiceless occlusives are acoustically pure glides, because they are heard only at the moment of transition to a vowel. According to Suit, most consonants are essentially glides to some degree, and acoustically consonants are only vowel modifiers - a thought that brings to mind the views of French authors of the 18th century.

Consonants, defined as friction noises or expiratory pauses, are divided, as in Ellis and Bell, into voiceless and voiced, and the question of division according to strength - weakness ("hardness - softness"), discussed in the works of mainly German authors, does not even mentioned. Separate categories of consonants are determined, in terms of the author, by form (which corresponds to the method of formation) and by place (in fact, by the current body, see below). tab. 65); in the Fundamentals of Phonetics, the same table is presented with Bell's transcription signs, (see. tab. 66). Suit has five forms of consonants: open, in which there is a passage of air (i.e. slotted), but slotted laterals make up a special type of divided (since the air stream is divided into two parts), closed (occlusive non-nasal), nasal and trembling; the latter were not included in the table, perhaps because Sweet considered them intermediate between fricative and occlusive. Sweet's classification is generally similar to the modern one (with the exception of the absence of trembling). The division by place (acting body) differs more from the current one and from those previously proposed by Lepsius, Brucke, Merkel. Sweet had an inaccurate understanding of many front-lingual articulations and did not understand (as did others) the formation of Arabic emphatic (velarized) consonants. But he correctly described the stop-larynx, however, referring to Merkel and Sievers.

Following Bell, Sweet distinguishes mixed consonants modified by changing the position of the tongue or lips; in essence, we are talking about consonants with additional articulations of palatalization - etc. or rounding - etc.; in "Fundamentals" such sounds are called complex. Sweet considers the concept of the syllable in connection with the division of the flow of speech, which, in his opinion, is naturally divided only into respiratory groups; syllable boundaries are less definite and can be drawn differently in different languages. The beginning of a syllable, according to Sweet, is marked by an increase in sound (force-impulse) and is partially indicated by division into words, for example, in a name `name' - an aim `target', a tall (man) `high (man)' - at all (times) `at all (times)". In connection with syllable division, doubled consonants are also described, during the articulation of which there is a weakening in the middle and a new dynamic impulse, while in simple long ones the sound strength changes gradually; the author sees the same difference between the combination of a stop with a fricative and an affricate: cut short - achieve.

The direct method arose on the basis of the natural method. He received such a name because his supporters sought to associate the words of a foreign language and its grammatical forms directly (directly) with their meaning, bypassing the native language of the students. Psychologists and linguists - V. Fietor, P. Passy, ​​G. Sweet, and others took part in the development of the direct method. Representatives of the direct method set themselves the goal of teaching students the practical knowledge of a foreign language. Since translation methods, the antipode of which was the direct method, brought to the fore educational goals, linking them with the need to teach how to read the text, the practical knowledge of a foreign language was first identified with the opposite task - to teach students oral speech.

The methodological principles of teaching by the direct method are as follows:

• 1. Learning is based on oral speech, since any language is inherently sound.
• 2. Exclusion of native language and translation.
• 3. Particular importance was attached to phonetics and pronunciation, since mastering the sound side of speech is an indispensable condition for oral communication.
• 4. Learning a word only in context, i.e., as part of sentences.
• 5. Learning grammar based on induction.

A somewhat different position was taken by the prominent linguist G. Sweet. Sharing the view of other representatives of the direct method on the practical purpose of teaching, he believed that the way to this in school conditions lies through the study of texts that reflect a living spoken language - the basis for teaching oral speech. This author owns the requirements for texts. These included the following:

• 1) texts should be varied and contain significant repetition of language material, which contributes to memorization;
• 2) Texts should be on a variety of topics;
• 3) At the beginning, descriptive texts are recommended - easier on the grammatical side, and then students should be given stories interspersed with dialogues;
• 4) texts should be selected taking into account the gradual complication of difficulties.

The lesson according to the direct method was built as follows: the teacher named the objects in the picture and repeated them by the students, then questions and answers, description of the pictures and lexical exercises. Everything ends with a retelling, a dialogue based on the studied material. If the text was taken as a basis, then at first it was read three times by the teacher and the words were explained, then exercises were done, and only after that, the text was read in transcription and traditional spelling.

An analysis of the materials shows that the direct method was not a homogeneous methodological trend in the West. We find different methods in different authors. At the same time, there are common features: rejection of the native language, attention to the sound image, inductive study of grammar, study of vocabulary in a sentence, and finally, ignoring the thinking of students in teaching and relying solely on memory and sensory perception.

In contrast to the direct orthodox method common in the West, in our country it has taken on a slightly different form. The direct method began to spread more widely in Russia in the early 1990s. However, even before World War I, there were many teachers who recognized the old textual-translational method.

The spread of the direct method in Russia has collided with the tradition of considering the positive impact of learning a foreign language on mastering the native language. In this regard, even among the ardent supporters of the direct method, we find the assumption of the native language, which is absolutely excluded in the Western version of the direct method. A number of methodologists have criticized the direct method for eliminating the native language at the initial stage of training.

If in pre-revolutionary Russia there were still adherents of the direct orthodox method, then in the 20s of the 20th century all Methodists who professed the direct method, and it was then dominant, finally determined the features of using the direct method in Russia. First, the methodologists of this period are characterized by a much greater use of their native language as a means of semantization and control of understanding. Secondly, in Russian conditions, comparison with the native language was allowed. Thirdly, methodologists noted that the use of the native language in the study of a foreign language is more used at the initial stage, and then it is more and more reduced.

The appearance of the “Russian version” of the direct method is due to two reasons. First, the main role was played by differences in Russian and Western European languages. The proximity of the latter to each other made it possible to build students' education without resorting to their native language. Compare: This is a book (a hand) and Das ist ein Вuch (eine Hand). In a Russian audience, this is impossible. Secondly, pedagogical traditions, starting with K.D. Ushinsky. These features in the tradition of teaching foreign languages ​​also affected the further development of the methodology.

The basic principles for selecting a dictionary according to Palmer:

1. Frequency (how often words occur in oral and written speech, and different meanings of the word should be considered separately)

2. Structural compatibility - the ability of ergons to be combined with other units. Moreover, when the student will already be able to use them with other lexical units.

3. Specificity

4. Proportionality

5. Expediency - considering this requirement as secondary, he believed that they could be violated for the sake of words belonging to the same semantic group (for example, learning the words "million", "billion" and / or "thousand" at the same time as "one", "two", "three", etc.)

21. Stages of training according to Palmer

Palmer set purely practical tasks for the study of a foreign language - to teach students to be fluent in the language (understand oral speech, speak, be able to read and write), and the degree of language proficiency should be as close as possible to the degree of language proficiency of a native speaker.
Such a target setting, in his opinion, is the basis of the standard secondary school curriculum.
Palmer determined the entire course for a period of 2.5-6.5 years, depending on the volume of the studied language. material. It is divided according to his method into three main steps: initial (elementarystage) six months long, intermediate (untermediatestage) 1-3 years long and advanced (advancedstage) is also 1-3 years long.
Task first - to teach to understand, with the help of subconscious perception, a foreign language by ear and to recognize individual sounds and sound combinations. Also teaching articulation, as well as the development by students of a minimum of theoretical knowledge from the field of phonetics, grammar, etymology and semantics.

Intermediate assumes the following:
a) understanding most of what is read and heard
b) relative error-free reproduction in oral or written form. the form of 75% of the material contained in the ordinary speech of an ordinary person. Students also need to learn traditional writing.

Advanced characterized by the fact that the value of the teacher-methodologist decreases. She, according to Palmer, "takes care of herself." Upon completion, students should be able to read various books and write short essays, as well as conduct a conversation with a foreigner.

However, in "ThisLanguage-LearningBusiness!", Palmer elaborates on the milestones. He thinks there should be six. Also, each of them is faced with the task of mastering any one aspect of the language.

1) First and second, for example, are aimed at teaching pronunciation and oral skills speech. Teaching is carried out exclusively orally, with limited involvement of records in transcription. Especially important is the use in the second stage of training question-answer exercises. The indications for the length of this period vary. In his early work, he believes that one should linger as long as possible on phonetic writing for about 2 years.
In his later work he limits each power to about 36 hours, and the duration of the second can be increased if the traditional writing of the language being studied sharply diverges from the phonetic one.
2) Task third steps - mastery by reading and by letter on the material studied in the previous two degrees.
3) Task fourth and fifth degrees - mastery all major grammatical language constructs and selected dictionary. The focus here is on oral work, which is built on the material of carefully graded textbook texts. At the fifth stage, in addition, the so-called extensive reading.
4) sixth step - independent work students over the tongue. It is carried out either under the guidance of a teacher, or completely independently. It is not limited in time

At all levels of education, oral speech occupies a leading place, reading is given a secondary role, it always follows oral speech. Although the tasks of the last two steps include the systematic study of texts.

22. Palmer's attitude to error

One of the main methodological principles of Palmer is the requirement of gradual introduction of difficulties (gradation) and their isolation.

Errors in the speech of students in a foreign language are the result of a violation of this principle, according to Palmer. Compliance with the principle of gradation of difficulties does not imply a distortion of the lexical, grammatical or phonetic norms of the language being studied. Language material should be given in such a form that the student from the very beginning is accustomed to the correct speech at a normal pace. Compliance with this principle also does not imply the study of the easier aspect of the language first (for example, its written form). This principle consists in the strict selection of material for study and its arrangement according to the degree of use, as well as in the careful selection of exercises in order of increasing difficulty.
In accordance with this, Palmer developed his system of substitution tables and a graded series of question-answer exercises, which occupy a leading place in his training system.

23. The main characteristics of the Sweet method

Sweet Distinguishes practical and theoretical language learning, referring to the first mastery of skills understand spoken language, read, speak and write in a foreign language. And to the second - study of the history of language and etymology. The full course should cover, in his opinion, both practical and theoretical study of the language.
Based on his work, one could conclude that the ultimate goal of education is mastering oral speech in a foreign language. However, according to Sweet, in school conditions this is a very difficult task, and for its implementation there is only one way - study of texts. Good linguists, he says, must admit that they have learned almost everything from books, especially in the early stages of learning a language, and very little from conversations.

The texts on which the study of language is built should, according to Sweet, reflect live spoken language and thus serve as the basis for oral speech. The topics of the texts that Sweet offers for learning English can be judged by their names: The Sun, The Moon, Rain, and so on. The texts are predominantly descriptive, with only a small number of dialogues included. The subject proposed by Sweet differs sharply from the "tourist" one, which is found in the vast majority of other textbooks of that time, written according to the direct method. Sweet considers the selection of texts one of the most important issues of methodology. He believes that the first reading texts should be descriptive character, because should be the easiest ram. respect, and then stories, which gradually included dialogues. Dialogues as independent texts are not recommended. The same type of material should be repeatedly found in the same text, but on condition that the naturalness of the language is preserved.

Suit requires diversify texts, graduate them according to the degree of difficulty, subordinate content to form. The variety of original texts is important because, according to Sweet, it provides the possibility of a comprehensive display of the use of various grams. phenomena. The degree of difficulty of the texts and their sequence is determined by Sweet on the basis of the gram contained in them. material. The same type of material should be repeatedly found in the same text, but on condition that the naturalness of the language is preserved.

Other text requirements include:

1. Educational texts should be coherent whole to facilitate the memorization of the language contained in them. material.
2. They must have clear context, then it is easier to understand the meaning of unfamiliar words and learn them.
3. Texts must be written within limited vocabulary.
4. They must be available by content, they should not contain concepts unknown to students.

Unlike other representatives of the Reform, Sweet proposes that teaching be based on texts that serve as a source of new material for students and around which all work on the language is built after they master pronunciation.

Sweet divides the entire course into five stages: 1) mechanical (pre-grammatical), 2) grammatical, 3) idiomatic and lexical, 4) literary, 5) archaic

On the first, the main thing is the mastery of pronunciation by students. Gram. phenomena are assimilated as forms of words, without any explanations and generalizations, at this stage grams are accumulated. facts that should be comprehended only at the next stage. The disclosure of the meaning of linguistic material occurs through translation. Once the sounds are mastered, one should proceed to reading coherent texts in transcriptional writing. Reading text should not be accompanied by a gram. analysis.

At the second level, the teacher's attention is focused on an elementary course of the grammar of the spoken language, of which only the main one is given. Texts should be selected in such a way as to illustrate various grammatical phenomena, which are introduced gradually, in order of complication.

At the third stage, the main attention is paid to the study of vocabulary and idioms. The vocabulary of students should increase to 3000 words and expressions (including previously learned ones) and be systematized according to the thematic principle. Grammar studies also continue at this degree.

The fourth stage serves to assimilate the modern literary language, and no special selection of texts is required here. At this stage of learning, students master traditional spelling, for which Sweet recommends using texts already known in transcription.

The fifth stage is devoted to the study of the history of the language (for English, this is the Shakespeare language and Anglo-Saxon).

Sweet believes that the practical study of language is no less scientific than the theoretical.

24. Suit's use of etymology

There is neither time nor opportunity to provide the necessary practice for learning a foreign language by a natural (natural) method in school conditions. With this method, a language can only be learned in the country of the language being studied or with the help of a governess. However, in both cases there is a danger that the child will not learn his native language well, and even if he learns a foreign language quickly, he will also forget it just as quickly if he does not subsequently have the necessary practice.

Why is it important? Sweet sees the essential advantages of learning a foreign language by the non-natural method in the possibility of studying grammar, in the analysis and generalization of linguistic facts. In order to determine the place that Sweet assigns to grammar, it is necessary to briefly familiarize himself with his view of the nature of language in general and grammar in particular.
Sweet believes that language is partly rational and partly irrational when viewed in its present state (historically, many of the "irregularities" can be easily explained). The plural of tree - trees - is a fact of general meaning. However, the fact that the combination of sounds in the sum (tri:) constitutes the concept of a “tree”, the sound (z) in certain positions will always correspond to the concept of plurality. This is the main difference between vocabulary and grammar. From this, Sweet concludes that everything that generalizable into the rules (grammar), must be studied with the help of theories, the facts are not generalizable(lexicon) - mechanically.

Sweet disagrees with the thesis of other Reform representatives that "we learn to speak by patterns, not by rules" or "we learn living languages ​​more by imitation than by rules." In his opinion, you need to start not with learning the rules, and with the creation of grammatical associations. “The psychological foundation of language learning is law of associations” (Suite)

When we learn our native language, we associate words and phrases with thoughts, ideas, actions and events.
When creating associations, according to Sweet, the following should be considered:
1) train first only frequent and typical linguistic phenomena
2) report first similar phenomena, and then contrasting working on them until they are fully assimilated
3) it is possible to create clearer and more direct associations
4) avoid cross oncoming associations, that is, when reporting, for example, a rule, one should not simultaneously give exceptions to it, since in this case students often remember only exceptions due to the fact that they are sometimes involuntarily given more attention.
preliminary accumulation facts, and then their subsequent comprehension with the help of rules and paradigms - this is how Sweet understands the inductive study of grammar.

In order to make it easier for students to master vocabulary, it is necessary to rationalize the vocabulary. Since there are many related words in the Germanic and Romance languages, according to Suit, they should form the basis around which other words should be grouped.
When explaining the meaning of words, Sweet recommends using translation first of all as the most reliable means, and only at a more advanced stage does he allow definitions and context. Historical digressions, in his opinion, are useful only if they help to reveal the semantics of a word in its modern use.

25. Historical conditions for the implementation of the army method.

Based on Bloomfield's ideas.

It was developed in the USA during World War II, when the computer entered the teaching methodology.

26. Goals of the army method.

In a short time (6-9 months) to teach oral communication in a foreign language within a limited set of everyday topics, i.e. achieve automatic speech responses to appropriate stimuli through repeated repetition.

27. Why is it impossible to transfer the army method to a comprehensive school

The method pursued special tasks of a military nature

The method did not provide for mastery of writing and reading the target language

In a regular school, there are no conditions for learning a language at such a pace and volume

Students are deprived of initiative, i.e. they must quickly and clearly repeat after the teacher and give the correct answers, respond to commands, etc.

However, some elements of the military method were reflected in Stack's "direct method in a new way" and the Friz-Lado audio-lingual method.

28. Basic principles of the army method.

High concentration on learning (25 hours per week)

There are no more than 5-7 people in the group and constant selection into groups according to the level of language proficiency

Education is based on dialogues on everyday topics, which students first listen to, then reproduce and memorize.

The main type of exercises - drills, or mechanical training - a large number of questions and answers to the learned dialogue under the supervision of a teacher

Classes in the language laboratory

Creating a language environment outside the classroom

The hard work of the students themselves in wartime

Ticket number 29 "The concept of a language laboratory"

A language laboratory is a multifunctional subdivision within the structure of a university or faculty, which optimizes the student's learning work offline and the teacher's educational and methodological work using ICT.

The language laboratory is also a means of optimizing the educational and methodological activities of the teacher, his language and professional development.

The language laboratory is not only an educational, but also a public language and cultural center for both teachers and students of a particular university, and for everyone who wants to learn a foreign language.

(The first language devices appeared more than 40 years ago, and their distribution was due to the growing popularity of audiovisual teaching methods. Although these devices were called language phones, most of them already at that time included both sound equipment (tape recorders, electric players) and projection equipment: dia - and film projectors, epidiascopes.As the importance of on-screen aids in the process of teaching foreign languages ​​increased, the nature of the equipment changed, and in the early 60s the concept of "language laboratory" firmly entered into use... In language laboratories, not only language devices found a place , but also a developed system of projection equipment. Thus, two concepts began to take shape in the methodology - a general one (language laboratory) and a narrower one (lingaphone device)... The concept of "foreign language classroom" was introduced into use, including not only sound engineering and projection equipment, but and all other training equipment necessary for the teaching lessons, preparing for them and organizing extracurricular activities.)

Ticket number 30 "The impact of new technologies on the development of methods in the second half of the 20th century"

With the advent of such new technologies as a tape recorder, computer, television, according to some scientists (for example, E.Stek), they could compensate for the lack of a language environment.

Ticket number 31 "Basic principles of the audiolingual method"

The creators of the audiolingual method are the American linguist-structuralist Ch. Friz and methodologist R. Lado. This is a method of teaching a foreign language, which provides for the use of the auditory channel of perception and repeated listening and reproduction of strictly selected structures (sentence samples) following the speaker, which leads to their automation. The concept of the method affirms the priority of oral speech over written one (hence - oral advance in work and organization of classes in the sequence of listening - speaking - reading - writing), the focus of classes on the formation of speech skills as a result of performing exercises such as "drill" (multiple repetition of samples), the predominance speech practice over explanations and comments, the widespread use of regional information. In the process of mastering the structures of the language, four stages were distinguished: memorization by imitation, conscious choice of a new model in opposition to already known ones, training in the speech implementation of the model, and free use of the model. The merit of the creators of the method is the careful development of the methodology of classes, leading to the automation of models, and the organic inclusion of language technology in the process of classes. A. m. o. refers to the situational type of learning.

The essence of the method is expressed by several principles:

1. The basis of language acquisition is mastering the skills of oral speech → oral speech is primary, and writing is secondary;

2. The formation of oral speech skills should take place as learning speech reactions to presented stimuli;

3. Skills must be automated to such an extent that speech actions are carried out without the participation of consciousness;

4. Automation of skills occurs by repeated repetition of speech patterns.

5. Teaching structures should take place in a system of compliance with the gradual increase in difficulties.

6. Most of the learning process (85%) is practice.

Ticket number 32 "Basic principles of the audiovisual method"

The audiovisual method, or as it is otherwise called, high-speed or global-structural, arose on the basis of the “army method”. Using some of the provisions of the "army method" - the intensity of training, the creation of an artificial environment, etc. - the creators of the audiovisual method significantly modified it and tried to substantiate it with the data of linguistics and psychology.

Basic principles:

1. The material for learning is spoken language in a dialogic form, and not literary texts.

2. The basis of language learning is oral speech.

3. The perception of new material in the form of integral structures occurs only by ear. Much attention is paid to the unity of the sound image (sounds, intonation, rhythm).

4. Expand the meaning of the new language material (vocabulary and grammar) using Images objects, actions, etc. and context, i.e. the demonstrated situation.

5.Language material is memorized on the basis of imitation, memorization and education by analogy.

33. Development of domestic methodology before the 1917 revolution.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the general educational task of teaching foreign languages ​​was put forward as the main one. The study of a foreign language in high school is considered as a means of developing logical thinking. The main object of learning is therefore grammar, which is identified with logic. The lexicon of the foreign language serves only as an illustration of the studied grammatical phenomena. Since the prototypes for the study of living languages ​​are the dead ones, the sound structure of the language is not studied. Students are introduced only to reading letters and their combinations. The provision on the commonality of languages ​​​​and the complete coincidence of concepts in terms of content and method of their expression gave representatives of translation methods a reason to consider literal (and sometimes post-word) translation as one of the basic principles of teaching a foreign language.

Since the systems of the foreign and native languages ​​did not coincide, the methodologists had to convey verbatim the lexical and grammatical constructions of the studied foreign language by means of their native language.

It can be argued that by the beginning of the First World War, an understanding of the general educational significance of studying foreign language took shape in the domestic methodology. At this moment, the Russian teacher N.N. Stromilov argued that this subject does not contribute anything to the formal education of the student, it overloads the memory, which harms thinking.

At the middle and senior levels, the textual-translational method was used, because the center of the work was reading and translation.

The choice of textbooks was quite large, a characteristic feature of all textbooks is the strong influence of traditions. In textbooks, one can see the emergence of a trend of a comparative approach.

34.L.V. Shcherba and his influence on the development of domestic methods.

Academician Shcherba played the greatest role in the creation of the conscious-comparative method; he found practical application for it. In 1947, Shcherba's book was published, in which his views on general issues of methodology were systematized. He put forward the principle of consciousness as the main principle, and he considered the grammatical-translational method to be the leading one. One of the important methodological ideas that influenced the development of the methodology was his idea of ​​the possibility of productive and receptive language acquisition. In the first case, the formation of speaking skills is supposed, in the second case, we are talking about mastering the ability to read and extract information from the text. Shcherba's thoughts on the general educational significance of foreign languages ​​have not lost their significance either. He considered a foreign language as a general education subject in secondary school, the study of which not only introduces the student to a foreign language culture, but allows the student to better understand their native language and culture. Later, Shcherba's ideas were developed by his numerous students and followers (Mirolyubov and Barsuk).

35. The concept of a grammatical minimum. Passive and active grammar

A grammatical minimum is a specific set of grammatical phenomena (grammatical forms, structures, rules for changing words and combining them into sentences) designed to correctly shape speech, both in terms of morphology and syntax.

Active grammatical minimum refers to those grammatical phenomena that are intended for use in speaking and writing.

Passive grammatical minimum refers to those phenomena that students can recognize and understand in the text.

The active grammatical minimum is selected on the basis of the following principles: a) the principle of prevalence in oral speech; b) exemplary principle; c) the principle of exclusion of synonymous grammatical phenomena.

The passive grammatical minimum is selected taking into account: a) the principle of prevalence in the book-written style of speech; b) the principle of polysemy of the grammatical phenomenon.

The comparative method is learning based on comparing the target language with the native one.

The comparative method is currently used in different countries, but it is most widely used in our country.

1) the desire of the Soviet school to give - a thorough general education

2) - philological education, since knowledge of foreign language is important

3) inyaz - belongs to a different group of languages ​​compared to Russian, so the comparative method is suitable

4) foreign language is taught in schools by a teacher who speaks his native language, this enables the teacher to take into account the difficulties that the student experiences when studying foreign language, and systematically overcome them with the help of exercises

The greatest role in the creation was played by academician L. V. SHERBA - he found the practical application of the method

The educational task is to better understand the thoughts we express and better separate the form from the content by comparing the linguistic phenomena of the native and foreign languages.

The educational task is the formation of a communist worldview, in general, the moral development

The comparative method assumes:

Awareness of linguistic phenomena

Awareness of the ways of using linguistic phenomena in speech activity

Support for native language

Ticket 37

Source of information: "Teaching foreign languages ​​in secondary school" L.V. Shcherba

Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba points to significant shortcomings in teaching a foreign language in the Soviet, contemporary school. He sees the main problem in teachers.

"The need for our teachers to get rid of the prejudice that learning to read books in any language is possible only to the extent of practical knowledge of this language" . In his opinion, a significant problem is that most of his contemporary teachers were taught the language by a direct method. Or they know it as a second native language since childhood, as they grew up in a once noble family. Shcherba proposes to overcome this prejudice by obliging teachers to read books in an unfamiliar language, using a dictionary and grammar guide. Only in this way will they be able to overcome the psychological barrier.

Teachers should not only teach the spoken language, but should also teach the understanding of texts not intuitively, but consciously, which they very often do not do despite the programs. And we must not only teach this, but also achieve concrete results in this direction. In other words, teachers should, on the one hand, show in the classroom how, looking into the dictionary and grammar, one can achieve understanding of the most difficult text, and on the other hand, require students to work independently at home on the text that was not previously “chewed” in class. In addition to increasing the number of readable texts, care must be taken to expand the vocabulary of students. To do this, for each lesson, students must memorize a known number of words selected from those texts that are given at home.

Another big disadvantage is few hours allocated for teaching a foreign language. For successful language acquisition by the conscious-comparative method, you need to devote at least 6 hours a day to classes. The largest number of hours allocated to a foreign language at school is 5-6 per week.

Many high school teachers force students to expand their vocabulary by writing out all unfamiliar words from texts and memorizing them. According to L.V. Shcherby such a method is irrational and erroneous. He proposes to learn first of all such words that are most often found in the language or are actively used by speakers. On the other hand, it is necessary to learn such words which, although relatively rare themselves, nevertheless provide the key to understanding many derived words.

At the same time, teachers are obliged to ensure that students write out and memorize words with their grammatical control and in all their basic meanings, and by no means only in the, often more or less random, in which they are used in a given context.

Another significant problem is lack of motivation students to learn a foreign language. Firstly, the prospect of going abroad is very small. Secondly, the program of a foreign course often does not take into account the age of students and students aged 12-15 are forced to learn elementary grammar rules for several classes in a row. This deprives them of interest in learning the subject.

And finally there is lack of authentic oral material, which is very important for learning the perception of the language by ear and pronunciation.

Linear Skinner algorithm

American professor Burres Skinner in 1954 first introduced the concept of linear programmed learning.

It is based on the following principles:

Splitting the training course into "small portions / steps" - to prevent possible errors of students in their perception;

The level of difficulty of each portion of educational material should be low enough to ensure the correct answers of the student to most questions (According to B. Skinner, in order to organize successful learning, the proportion of erroneous answers of students should not exceed 5%);

A uniform course of study for all - since no attempt is made to organize learning depending on the abilities and inclinations of the students. The whole difference between students will be expressed only in the duration of the passage of the same program;

The student gives answers by filling in the appropriate gaps in the educational text;

Immediate confirmation and encouragement of the correctness of the student's answer to develop a sense of confidence and interest in learning;

If the answer is wrong, the student receives help and additional explanations;

The transition to the next step of the program is possible only when the student masters the content of the previous step;

Individualization of the pace of learning - each student works at an optimal pace for himself;

Differentiated knowledge consolidation - each generalization is repeated in different contexts and illustrated with carefully selected examples.

Suite(Sweet) Henry (September 15, 1845, London - April 30, 1912, Oxford), English linguist. He studied at Heidelberg (1864) and Oxford (since 1869) universities, teacher of phonetics at Oxford University (since 1901). Member of the Philological Society (1869-85). Founder of the English school of phoneticians. The main works in the field of phonetics, English and Germanic philology, Old English dialectology. S. made a great contribution to the development of the theory of phonology; also studied the typology of phonological systems of the languages ​​of the world.

Cit.: A history of English sounds from the earliest period, 2 ed., Oxf., 1888; A handbook of phonetics, Oxf., 1877; A short historical English grammar, Oxf., 1892; Collected papers, Oxf., 1913.

Lit.: Wrenn C. L., Henry Sweet, in: Portraits of linguists, v. I, Bloomington - L., Estonian poet and literary critic. He graduated from the University of Helsinki in 1910. In 1917-19 active...

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