DULEBY - tribal union of Eastern Slavs.
They lived in the basin of the Bug and the right tributaries of the Pripyat since the 6th century. Researchers attribute the Dulebs to one of the earliest ethnic groups of the Eastern Slavs, from which some other tribal unions were later formed, including the Volynians (Buzhans) and the Drevlyans. Archaeological monuments of Duleb are represented by the remains of agricultural settlements and burial mounds with corpses burned.
According to chronicles, in the 7th century. The Dulebs were invaded by the Avars. In 907, the Duleb squad took part in Prince Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople. According to historians, in the 10th century. The association of Dulebs disintegrated, and their lands became part of Kievan Rus.
VOLYNIANS, (Velynyans) - an East Slavic union of tribes that inhabited the territory on both banks of the Western Bug and at the source of the river. Pripyat.
The ancestors of the Volynians were presumably the Dulebs, and their earlier name was the Buzhans.
In Russian chronicles, the Volynians are first mentioned in 907: they participated in Prince Oleg’s campaign against Byzantium as “talkovins” - translators. In 981, the Kiev prince Vladimir I Svyatoslavich subjugated the Peremyshl and Cherven lands, where the Volynians lived. The Volyn city of Cherven has since become known as Vladimir-Volynsky. In the 2nd half. 10th century The Vladimir-Volyn principality was formed on the lands of the Volynians.
VYATICHI is an East Slavic union of tribes that lived in the basin of the upper and middle reaches of the Oka and along the river. Moscow.
According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the ancestor of the Vyatichi was Vyatko, who came “from the Lyakhs” (Poles) together with his brother Radim, the ancestor of the Radimichi tribe. Modern archaeologists do not find confirmation of the West Slavic origin of the Vyatichi.
According to archaeological observations, the settlement of the Vyatichi occurred from the territory of the Dnieper left bank or even from the upper reaches of the Dniester. Most researchers believe that the substrate of the Vyatichi was the local Baltic population. The Vyatichi settled in the Oka basin during the 6th-8th centuries
In the 2nd half. 9th-10th centuries The Vyatichi paid tribute to the Khazar Khaganate. For a long time they maintained independence from the Kyiv princes. As allies, the Vyatichi took part in the campaign of the Kyiv prince Oleg against Byzantium in 911. In 968, the Vyatichi were defeated by the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav. At the beginning of the 12th century. Vladimir Monomakh fought with the Vyatichi prince Khodota. In the late 11th - early 12th centuries. Christianity was implanted among the Vyatichi. Despite this, they maintained pagan beliefs for a long time.
By the 12th century. The territory of the Vyatichi was located in the Chernigov, Rostov-Suzdal and Ryazan principalities.
DREVLYANES - an East Slavic tribal union that occupied in the 6th-10th centuries. the territory of Polesie, the Right Bank of the Dnieper, west of the glades, along the rivers Teterev, Uzh, Ubort, Stviga. The area of residence of the Drevlyans corresponds to the area of the Luka-Raykovets culture. The name Drevlyans, according to the chronicler's explanation, was given to them because they lived in forests.
Archaeologists have discovered burials on the lands of the Drevlyans with corpses burned in urns in moundless burial grounds. In the 6th-8th centuries. Burials in mounds spread in the 8th-10th centuries. - urnless burials, and in the 10th-13th centuries. - corpses in burial mounds.
The absence of weapons in the graves indicates the peaceful nature of the tribe; finds of sickles, shards and vessels, iron products, remains of fabrics and leather indicate the existence of arable farming, pottery, blacksmithing, weaving and tanning among the Drevlyans; many bones of domestic animals and spurs indicate cattle and horse breeding; a multitude of foreign objects made of silver, bronze, glass and carnelian indicates the existence of trade, and the absence of coins gives reason to conclude that trade was barter.
Known from the 9th-10th centuries, it was they who took revenge on Princess Olga for her husband, after which the land of the Drevlyans was annexed to the Kyiv appanage with its center in the city of Vruchy (Ovruch).
DREGOVICHI - tribal union of Eastern Slavs.
The exact boundaries of the habitat of Dregovichi have not yet been established. According to a number of researchers (V.V. Sedov and others), in the 6th-9th centuries. Dregovichi occupied territory in the middle part of the river basin. Pripyat, in the 11th - 12th centuries. the southern border of their settlement passed south of Pripyat, the northwestern - in the watershed of the Drut and Berezina rivers, the western - in the upper reaches of the river. Neman.
When settling Belarus, the Dregovichi moved from south to north (towards the Neman River), which indicates their southern origin. Chronicles speak of the origin of the Dregovichi, along with the Drevlyans, Polyans (Dnieper), and Krivichi (Polotsk), from the tribes of White Croats, Serbs and Horutans who settled on the territory of Belarus, who came in the 6th-7th centuries
In the 10th century the lands inhabited by the Dregovichi became part of Kievan Rus, and later became part of the Turov and Polotsk principalities.
KRIVICHI - tribal union of Eastern Slavs 6-11 centuries. They lived in the territories of what are now Vitebsk, Mogilev, Pskov, Bryansk and Smolensk regions, as well as eastern Latvia. They were formed on the basis of the incoming Slavic and local Baltic population (Tushemlinskaya culture). Probably, the ethnogenesis of the Krivichi involved the remnants of local Finno-Ugric and Baltic (Estonians, Livs, Latgalians) tribes, which mixed with the numerous newcomer Slavic population.
The Krivichi are divided into two large groups: Pskov and Polotsk-Smolensk. In the culture of the Polotsk-Smolensk Krivichi, along with Slavic elements of decoration, there are elements of the Baltic type. Baltic elements are also present in the funeral rites.
The Tale of Bygone Years reports that the cities of the Krivichi were Smolensk and Polotsk. According to the same chronicle, in 859 the Krivichi paid tribute to the Varangians “from overseas”, and in 862, together with the Slovenes of Ilmen and Chud, they invited Rurik to reign. Like other Slavic tribes, the Krivichi paid tribute to the Varangians and went with Oleg and Igor on campaigns against Byzantium. In the 11th-12th centuries. The principalities of Polotsk and Smolensk arose on the lands of the Krivichi.
POLOCHAN - Slavic tribe, part of the Krivichi tribal union; lived along the banks of the river. Dvina and its tributary Polota, from which they got their name.
The center of the Polotsk land was the city of Polotsk. In the Tale of Bygone Years, the Polotsk people are mentioned several times along with such large tribal unions as the Ilmen Slovenians, the Drevlyans, the Dregovichi, and the Polyans.
In the mid-10th - early 11th centuries. The Principality of Polotsk was formed on the territory of Polotsk.
POLYANE - a tribal union of Eastern Slavs who lived on the Dnieper, in the area of modern Kyiv. The very origin of the glades remains unclear, since the territory of their settlement was at the junction of several archaeological cultures. In the 6th-7th centuries, the Korczak and Penkovka cultures, associated respectively with the Dulebs and Ants, bordered here with the Kolochin culture, widespread on the left bank of the Dnieper. At first, around the middle of the 8th century, the glades, who paid tribute to the Khazars due to cultural and economic superiority, soon moved from a defensive position in relation to their neighbors to an offensive one; By the end of the 9th century, the Drevlyans, Dregovichs, northerners and others were already subject to the glades. Christianity was established among them earlier than others. The center of the Polyansky land was Kyiv; its other settlements are Vyshgorod, Belgorod on the Irpen River, Zvenigorod, Trepol, Vasilev and others.
RADIMICHI - an East Slavic union of tribes that lived in the eastern part of the Upper Dnieper region, along the river. Sozh and its tributaries in the 8th-9th centuries.
Convenient river routes passed through the lands of the Radimichi, connecting them with Kiev. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the ancestor of the tribe was Radim, who came “from the Poles,” i.e. of Polish origin, together with his brother Vyatko. The Radimichi and Vyatichi had a similar burial rite - the ashes were buried in a log house - and similar temple jewelry for women - seven-rayed. In the 9th century Radimichi paid tribute to the Khazar Khaganate. In 885, these tribes were subjugated by the Kyiv prince Oleg the Prophet. The last time they were mentioned in the chronicle was in 1169. Then the territory of the Radimichi became part of the Chernigov and Smolensk principalities.
RUSSIANS - in sources of the 8th-10th centuries. the name of the people who participated in the formation of the Old Russian state.
Based on data from the Tale of Bygone Years, some historians believe that the chronicler identified the “Rus” with the Polyan tribe and led them along with other Slavs from the upper reaches of the Danube, from Norik. Others believe that the Rus are a Varangian tribe, “called” to reign in Novgorod under Prince Oleg the Prophet, who gave the name “Rus” to the land of Kyiv. Still others prove that the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” connected the origin of the Rus with the Northern Black Sea region and the Don basin.
The mystery of the origin of the "Rus" people has not yet been solved.
NORTHERNS - an East Slavic union of tribes that lived in the 9th-10th centuries. by pp. Desna, Seim, Sula.
The western neighbors of the northerners were the Polyans and Dregovichi, the northern - the Radimichi and Vyatichi.
Archaeologists correlate the northerners with the carriers of the Volyntsev archaeological culture, who lived on the left bank of the Dnieper, along the Desna and Seim in the 7th-9th centuries. The Volyntsevo tribes were Slavic, but their territory was in contact with lands inhabited by representatives of the Saltovomayatsk archaeological culture.
The main occupation of the northerners was agriculture. In the 9th century they paid tribute to the Khazars, later (882) they were subjugated by Prince Oleg and their territory, together with the land of the Polyans, Krivichi and Ilmen Slovenes, formed the core of Kievan Rus. In 907 they took part in Oleg's campaign against Byzantium. Later, the Principality of Chernigov arose on their territory.
SLOVEN ILMEN - a tribal union of Eastern Slavs on the territory of the Novgorod land, mainly in the lands near the lake. Ilmen, next to the Krivichi.
According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the Ilmen Slovenes, together with the Krivichi, Chud and Meri, participated in the calling of the Varangians, who were related to the Slovenes - immigrants from the Baltic Pomerania. Slovenian warriors were part of the squad of Prince Oleg and took part in the campaign of Vladimir I Svyatoslavich against the Polotsk prince Rogvold in 980.
TIVERTS - an East Slavic tribe that settled in the 9th century in the area between the Dniester and Prut rivers, as well as the Danube, including along the Budzhak coast of the Black Sea in the territory of modern Moldova and Ukraine.
In the Tver Chronicle under 863 there is news of the struggle of Askold and Dir with the Tiverts. Under 885, many chronicles preserved the news that Oleg “had an army with the Tivertsy and Uluchi.” Under 907, the chronicle preserved news of the participation of the Tiverts in Oleg's campaign; under 944, in some lists - news of their participation in Igor's campaign.
STREETS - an East Slavic union of tribes that existed in the 9th century. 10th centuries
According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the Ulichi lived in the lower reaches of the Dnieper, Bug and on the shores of the Black Sea. The center of the tribal union was the city of Peresechen. In the 1960s archaeologists have discovered street settlements in the area of the river. Tyasmin (tributary of the Dnieper).
For a long time the tribes resisted the attempts of the Kyiv princes to subjugate them to their power. In 885, Oleg the Prophet fought with the streets, already collecting tribute from the glades, Drevlyans, northerners and Tiverts. Unlike most East Slavic tribes, the Ulichi did not participate in Prince Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople in 907. At the turn of the 40s of the 10th century. Kiev governor Sveneld kept the city of Peresechen under siege for three years. In the middle of the 10th century. Under the pressure of nomadic tribes, the Ulichi moved north and were included in Kievan Rus.
At the beginning of the 12th century. Under the attacks of the Pechenegs and Polovtsians, the Tivertians retreated to the north, where they mixed with other Slavic tribes.
Appendix 1: Map of the settlement of Slavic tribes
SLAVS are the largest group of European peoples, united by a common origin and linguistic affinity in the system of Indo-European languages. Its representatives are divided into three subgroups: southern (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Bosnians), eastern (Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians) and western (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Lusatians).
The Great Migration of Peoples. Celts, Germans, Slavs, Turks. Formation of barbarian kingdoms. Settlement of the Franks, occupations, social structure.
The role of Christianity in the early Middle Ages.
Christianization of Europe. Aurelius Augustine. John Chrysostom.
The creation and collapse of Charlemagne's empire.
Formation of states in Western Europe. Political fragmentation. Norman conquests.
Early Slavic states. Enlighteners of the Slavs - Cyril and Methodius.
Topic 2. The Byzantine Empire and the Slavs in the 6th-11th centuries. (2 hours)
The Byzantine Empire: territory, economy, government structure. Emperors of Byzantium.
Arab tribes: settlement, occupations. The emergence of Islam. Muhammad. Koran. Arab conquests in Asia, North Africa, Europe.
Topic 3. Arabs in the 6th-11th centuries. (2h)
The emergence of Islam. Conquests of the Seljuks and Ottomans.
Fall of Byzantium. Ottoman Empire.Topic 4. Feudal lords and peasants. (2 hours)
Feudal land tenure. Lords and vassals.
European chivalry: way of life and rules of conduct.
Features of economic life. Feudal lords and the peasant community. Feudal duties. Life, everyday life and work of peasants.
Topic 5.
Medieval city in Western and Central Europe (2 hours)Medieval city. Life and everyday life of townspeople. Workshops and guilds.- Topic 6. The Catholic Church in the 11th-13th centuries. Crusades (2h)Estate society in medieval Europe.
The emergence of class-representative monarchies in European countries. Estates General in France. Features of the estate-representative monarchy in England. Magna Carta. Parliament. Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.
Topic 8. Germany and Italy in the 12th-15th centuries. (1h)
German states in the XIV-XV centuries.
The crisis of European class society in the XIV-XV centuries. The Hundred Years' War: causes and results.
Joan of Arc. War of the Roses. Peasant and urban uprisings. Jacquerie. Rebellion of Wat Timer.
Topic 9. Slavic states and Byzantium in the 14th-15th centuries. (1h)
Crisis of the Catholic Church. Popes and emperors. Hussite movement in the Czech Republic. Jan Hus.
Topic 10. Culture of Western Europe in the 11th-15th centuries. (4 hours) The spiritual world of medieval man. Life and holidays.
Medieval epic. Knightly literature. Urban and peasant folklore. Romanesque and Gothic styles in architecture, sculpture and decorative arts.
Development of science and technology. The emergence of universities.
Scholasticism. The beginning of book printing in Europe.
Cultural heritage of Byzantium.
Features of the medieval culture of the peoples of the East.
Architecture and poetry.
Topic 11. Countries of Asia and America in the Middle Ages (V-XV centuries) (4 hours)
China: the collapse and restoration of a single power. Empires of Tang and Song. Peasant uprisings, nomadic invasions. Creation of the Ming Empire. Indian principalities. Creation of the Mughal state. Delhi Sultanate. Medieval Japan. . States of Central Asia in the Middle Ages.
The state of Khorezm and its conquest by the Mongols. Campaigns of Timur (Tamerlane). . Development of North-Eastern Russia. The nature of princely power in the northeastern lands. The rise of the Rostov-Suzdal (Vladimir-Suzdal) principality.
Princes Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest, their domestic and foreign policies. The first mention of Moscow. Velikiy Novgorod.
Territory, natural and economic features of North-Western Rus'. Features of the social structure and political structure of the Novgorod land.
Galicia-Volyn land. Features of the geographical location. Occupations of the population. The growth of patrimonial ownership of land. Prince Roman Mstislavich. . Unification of Volyn and Galich. The relationship between the boyars and the prince. Prince Daniil Galitsky.
Mongol invasion of Rus' Creation of the power of Genghis Khan. Mongol conquests in Asia. Battle on the Kalka River. Invasion of Ryazan land.
Heroic defense of Ryazan. Evpatiy Kolovrat. The defeat of the Vladimir principality. Hike to Novgorod. Heroic defense of Kozelsk. Invasion of Southwestern Rus' and Central Europe. The significance of Rus''s opposition to the Mongol conquest. The struggle of Russian lands with Western conquerors.
Swedes' campaigns in Rus'. Conquest of the Baltic states by the Crusaders. Livonian and Teutonic orders. Prince Alexander Yaroslavich. . Battle of the Neva. Battle on the Ice. The meaning of victory over the crusaders.
Rus' and the Golden Horde. . Education of the Golden Horde. Political dependence of Russian lands on the Horde. Duties of the Russian population. The struggle of the Russian people against Horde rule.
This time in the country was called the Dark Ages. After all, if compared with Antiquity, now the country is dominated by decline and barbarism, as well as constant wars and robberies. It was at this time that the main civilizations of Europe began to be founded. Europe began to develop as a community with a historical and cultural way of life. It was during the Middle Ages that the culture of Europe was born, which originated from the Roman Empire and the way of life of the barbarians.
Between the already departing Antiquity and the newly formed Middle Ages, Christianity appeared. It was this that became the shell that absorbed various traditions and views on life. It was Christianity that fully met all the needs for the mass consciousness of the people of that era.
The Latin language was preserved as the main language of the church, as well as government affairs and the culture of communication at the international level. The tradition of schools in Rome also remained intact, which meant 7 arts that were given complete freedom. This system was divided into lower levels and higher levels. The lower levels included grammar and rhetoric, but the higher levels included arithmetic, astronomy, as well as geometry and music. From the beginning of the 9th century, a rapid rise in monastic schools, as well as cathedral and parish schools, became noticeable. There were also so-called secular schools.
The idea of combining Christian theologies with the culture of rhetoric came to the secretary and master of the Ostrogothic kings. He wrote Varius, which was a whole collection of various documents. There were both diplomatic and business correspondence there. In the southern lands of Italy, he decides to found a Vivarium. This is a kind of cultural center in which he decided to unite schools, libraries, as well as workshops in which books were copied. For Benedict's monasteries, he was a real standard. It was they who, at the end of the 6th century, became the cultural guardians of the country’s various traditions.
Pope Gregory 1 constantly opposed ancient traditions or any manifestation of paganism in the spiritual life of the peasants. It was he who was responsible for the publication of literature that met all the requirements of the consciousness of medieval people.
In Western Europe, the decline of the cultural life of the townspeople occurred at the end of the 7th century. This culture was barely preserved in distant monasteries, and it was preserved a little more in Ireland, because it was from there that the monastic teachers came.
Very little data has survived from the sources. In the period from the 4th to the 7th centuries, the 3rd people of Europe began to rapidly take shape a heroic epic, which at that time served as history. The main characters were various gnomes, dwarfs, monsters, evil and good gods, fairies, werewolves and other evil spirits.
The settlement of the Slavs in Eastern Europe occurred in the VI-XI centuries as a result Great Migration- a grandiose migration movement that swept through the 1st millennium AD. European continent.
The basis of the economic life of the Slavs was agriculture. Those tribes that inhabited fertile forest-steppe areas practiced fallow (fallback) farming system: they burned the grass in a certain area, fertilized the soil with ash, and then used the land until it was completely depleted. In forest areas, the Slavs resorted to slash (slash-and-burn) a system in which large areas of forest had to be cut down and burned. A significant role among the activities of the Slavs was played by fur hunting, fishing, beekeeping(collecting honey from wild bees). The Slavs actively participated in the slave trade. The “goods” were usually prisoners of war.
In conditions of labor intensity and low productivity of such work, the peasant community played the most important role ( rope). The land was collectively owned by the entire community and was divided into plots that were transferred for the use of individual families.
All issues of managing society were concentrated in the hands evening(national assembly), which was presided over in peacetime by an elder, and in wartime by a military leader.
The development of the East European Plain by the Slavs took place through infiltration- without bloody clashes with the Baltic (modern Latvians and Lithuanians) and Finno-Ugric (Sum, Perm, Karelians, Chud, Merya, etc.) tribes that inhabited it, while in the course of constant contacts a significant part of the local population became Slavic. The relationship between the Slavs and their southern neighbors – pastoral peoples who roamed the steppes – was different.
The Turkic tribes were the first to appear in Eastern Europe at the beginning of the 6th century. Avars, who defeated the alliance of Antes in the Northern Black Sea region - agricultural Slavic tribes. At the very beginning of the 7th century. The Avars (the Slavs called them Obra) entered into a war with the Byzantine Empire and were completely defeated. This saved the Slavs from their further raids and happened so unexpectedly that our ancestors had a saying “perished like an obry,” that is, suddenly.
Already by the time of the death of the Avars, new nomads appeared on the territory of the Northern Black Sea region, the Northern Caucasus and the Caspian steppes, as well as the Turks - Khazars. They created here a strong state, the Khazar Khaganate, with its capital in the city of Itil (later Sarkel). Most of the Khazars remained pagans, but the nobility adopted Judaism, which became the state religion. The Khazars regularly raided the lands of the Slavic tribes, many of whom (Polyans and Vyatichi, for example) were forced to pay them tribute.
The Slavs became another formidable neighbor in the second half of the 7th century. Volga Bulgaria(or Volga Bulgaria). It was located in the middle reaches of the Volga and on the lower Kama. The majority of the population is Turkic. The capital of the state is Bulgar (on the site of modern Kazan). The state religion is Islam. The Bulgars created a complex and unique civilization that lasted until the 13th century.
In the north of Eastern Europe, indigenous peoples became neighbors of the Slavs, and in the northwest - Vikings ( Varangians) - mostly immigrants from Sweden. The latter attacked coastal settlements. Novgorod especially suffered from the Varangians (the first mention of it was in 853), whose residents paid them tribute. However, relations with the Vikings were ambiguous, since they were not so much enemies of the Slavs as profitable trading partners.
Tribes were formed from individual communities, which in the 7th – 8th centuries. united to jointly develop the territory and protect it from external enemies into tribal alliances. Vast lands in the north, around Lake Ilmen, were in the possession of the union Slovenian Ilmensky(Novgorod). Unions were located in the upper reaches of the Dnieper Dregovichi(between Pripyat and Western Dvina), Polotsk(Polotsk), Drevlyans(Iskorosten), Radimichi(Sozh River basin) and northerners; on the lands in the middle reaches of the Dnieper, where forests gradually gave way to forest-steppe, they lived clearing(Kyiv, founded around the 6th century by the semi-legendary Prince Kiy). Fertile lands along the Dniester were occupied White Croats And Volynians, the streets And Tivertsy. In the area between the Upper Volga and Oka rivers, a few tribes lived Krivichi(Smolensk) and Vyatichi(modern Moscow and Tula regions).
Constant wars contributed to the growth of the influence of military leaders ( princes) and them squads. Thus, the creation of tribal unions creates the preconditions for the emergence of statehood among the Eastern Slavs in the 9th century. in two centers at once - in Kyiv and Novgorod.
Kievan Rus
"The Tale of Bygone Years"(author - Nestor, 1113) contains a story about how the Slovenian Ilmenskys 862 They called on the Varangians to restore order on their land. Three brothers, Varangian princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, responded to this call, and came to the Novgorod lands along with their tribe - Russia, which gave its name to the whole of Eastern Europe. From the eldest, Rurik, who “settled” in Novgorod, came the princely genus, who gradually united all Russian lands under his control and created a state centered in Kyiv. The Rurik dynasty ruled in Rus' until 1598.
The Norman theory was based on this chronicle information. Its authors were German historians of the 18th century. Bayer, Schlözer and Miller. They argued that state principles were introduced to the primitive Slavic tribes from the outside by the Normans (Vikings), and were purely artificial for them. The Norman theory was adhered to by many historians of the 18th-19th centuries, although even then it had many opponents. The first anti-Normanist was M.V. Lomonosov. Most modern scientists do not deny that the Normans played a significant role in the formation of the Russian state, but they are not inclined to exaggerate it. Rurik with his strong squad (the existence of Sineus and Truvor is denied by modern science) obviously only completed this long and complex process.
The first Kyiv princes
In 879, Rurik was replaced on the Novgorod throne by his “relative” Oleg ( Prophetic).
IN 882 Oleg made a campaign against Kyiv and killed the ruling princes Dir and Askold, most likely descendants of Kiy, and then proclaimed himself the ruler of a single Kiev-Novgorod state - Rus'. Later, in the 19th century, it would receive the name Kievan Rus.
Oleg makes campaigns against Constantinople ( Constantinople), takes it by storm ( 907 g), and concludes a trade agreement beneficial for Rus' ( 911, allowed Kyiv merchants to create trading posts in Constantinople). This document is considered the oldest monument of Slavic writing in Rus'.
In 912, Oleg transferred the Kiev throne to Rurik’s son Igor the Old. The new prince organized several campaigns against Byzantium (941-944), concluded a new treaty with Constantinople, and also made the first attempt to create a system of government for the Old Russian state.
Being an extremely primitive state in its structure, Kievan Rus was a conglomerate of conquered tribes, mostly Slavic. The power of the prince was exercised in two forms:
- Systematic military campaigns to the outskirts of Rus' with the aim of re-conquering these areas.
- Performed annually polyudye, i.e. bypassing all Slavic tribes in order to collect tribute.
Wanting to make the state more manageable, Igor allocates six appanages from it, which he distributes to his boyars in feeding, i.e. not as property, but with the right to collect tribute. This is how the first elements of government appeared in Rus'.
IN 945 Igor was killed by the Drevlyans while trying to collect tribute again. The chronicle preserved the words of the Drevlyans: “If a wolf gets into the habit of dragging a flock of sheep, he drags everyone around until they kill him.”
Four-year-old Svyatoslav Igorevich became the new Grand Duke under the regency of his mother, Princess Olga. Having brutally avenged the death of her husband on the Drevlyans (the Drevlyan ambassadors were killed, Iskorosten was burned), Olga carried out a reform of tribute collection (essentially a tax reform). She replaced Polyudye by cart. Now the prince did not travel around all the lands, but only collected the prepared tribute from specially designated places - churchyards. Were introduced lessons, i.e. fixed amount of tribute.
Around 957, Olga visited Constantinople and was baptized under the name Helen. By her order, the first wooden church was built in Kyiv.
From 964 Svyatoslav ruled independently. He showed no interest in the internal problems of Rus' and went down in history as a great East Slavic commander who spent his life in military campaigns ( "Alexander the Great of Eastern Europe"). In Western Europe, the prince was considered one of the models of chivalry, since he always warned his enemies about the start of a campaign against them: “I’m coming against you!” IN 964 – 965 And 966 – 967 gg. he conducted successful campaigns in Bulgaria and the Khazar Kaganate, which was completely destroyed. From 968 to 971 Svyatoslav wages wars in Bulgaria (on the Balkan Peninsula), first against the Bulgarians, and then against Byzantium. Having suffered defeat at Dorostol (971), in 972 Svyatoslav returns to Kyiv, but on the way he dies in a Pecheneg ambush.
From 972 to 980 is happening The first strife in Rus'- the struggle for power of the sons of Svyatoslav - Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir.
The reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich
IN 980 Vladimir Svyatoslavich became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, who carried out a number of transformations:
- The Varangian mercenary squad was replaced by him with a Slavic one (apparently his brother Oleg was the first to do this).
- Along the southeastern border of Rus', a system of defensive fortifications was created to protect against attacks by nomads, primarily the Pechenegs (the so-called “Bogatyr Outposts”).
- In order to unite the state, Vladimir carried out a religious reform. An attempt was made to create a single pantheon of pagan gods for all tribes, led by Perun. Vladimir himself appropriated the name of the sun god - Khorsa (hence his nickname “Red Sun”). Human sacrifice has been revived. Pogroms are carried out in the households of the main competitors of the new faith - Christians. However, the Slavic tribes refused to accept the new pantheon, compiled on the basis of the Polan and North Germanic pantheons.
- IN 988 (990), convinced of the failure of the previous reform, and also striving for rapprochement with the advanced countries of Europe, Vladimir Svyatoslavich introduced Christianity in Rus'. The baptism of Vladimir and his squad took place in the Byzantine fortress of Korsun (Sevastopol), which the Kiev prince took by storm. At baptism, Vladimir received the name Vasily.
The meaning of the baptism of Rus':
- There is a general humanization of the socio-political system of Rus'.
- Thanks to Christianization, the culture of Rus' came under strong Byzantine influence, which significantly enriched it (stone construction, church architecture, icon painting, etc.).
- Christianization contributed to the mass spread of literacy. The first schools in Rus' were founded by order of Vladimir for the children of the nobility (“deliberate children”) and trained priests.
- Rus' gets the opportunity to enter the club of European states as an equal member.
- Christianity contributed to the unity of the peoples of Rus', although not as much as expected.
- As a result of the baptism of Rus', there is a tendency towards the sacralization of state power (towards the recognition of its sacred nature).
- Thanks to baptism, some ordering of social life occurs.
Vladimir also organizes successful military campaigns against the Pechenegs, who suffered decisive defeats, and individual peoples of Rus' (primarily against the Vyatichi).
Rus' under Yaroslav the Wise
In 1015 Vladimir Svyatoslavich dies and begins Second strife in Rus'- the struggle for the Kiev throne of the adopted son of Vladimir Svyatopolk the Accursed (son of Yaropolk) and the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich (the Wise). In an effort to get rid of competitors, Svyatopolk killed the brothers Yaroslav - Boris and Gleb - who later became the first Russian saints.
IN 1019 Having won the victory, Yaroslav the Wise becomes the Grand Duke of Kyiv. Yaroslav finally put an end to the Pecheneg raids, but suffered serious defeats from Byzantium, and therefore did not go down in history as a great commander. The glory of the Grand Duke was brought to him by peaceful transformations.
- In 1016, Yaroslav created the first written code of laws in Rus' - the Pravda of Yaroslav - the first part of the Russian Pravda. The main theme of the document is blood feud, which is subject to restrictions. Initially, the effect of Yaroslav's Truth extended only to the Novgorod land.
- Active stone construction is underway. The first stone church - the Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Tithe) was built by Vladimir in 996. Now the Spassky Cathedral in Chernigov (1036), St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kyiv (1037, modeled on the Sophia of Constantinople) and Novgorod (1045 - 1050) were built G.)
- Public secular schools are opened at churches, including for girls. Literacy is becoming universal, as evidenced by numerous birch bark documents for everyday use, marks on handicraft products and marks on logs.
- The international authority of Rus' is growing. This is facilitated by numerous dynastic marriages of Yaroslav's children with European kings and princesses (Anna Yaroslavna became Queen of France).
- Under Yaroslav, the first monasteries appeared, the most famous - the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. Its founders were Anthony and Hilarion (the future metropolitan).
- Yaroslav Vladimirovich managed to remove the Russian church from the control of the Patriarch of Constantinople, having achieved the right to independently appoint a metropolitan from among the Russian clergy. Hilarion became the first Russian metropolitan around 1051. He is also known as the author of the first philosophical treatise in Rus' - “Tales about Law and Grace.” The main theme of the work is the substantiation of the spiritual superiority of Orthodoxy over Catholicism and the right of Rus' to a worthy place among European states, due to its Christianization.
- Yaroslav the Wise creates a system of feudal land tenure in Rus'. He carries out stripping, i.e. begins the transfer of land to the boyars on the basis of patrimonial rights (into hereditary possession). The boyars constitute the elite of the squad - the senior squad. From them, an advisory body under the prince is formed - the Boyar Duma. In addition to her, there is also a junior squad, consisting of youths and gridi. At his headquarters, the Grand Duke appoints managers - firemen.
The third strife in Rus'. Vladimir Monomakh
IN 1054 Mr. Yaroslav dies, bequeathing Kievan Rus before his death to his three sons - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. Initially, the brothers ruled as a triumvirate (together, the three of them).
IN 1068 in the battle on the Alta River the army of the Yaroslavichs was defeated Polovtsians– nomadic tribes – new enemies of Rus'. At the head of the Polovtsian army was Khan Sharukhan. The people of Kiev, seeing the inability of the princes to organize the defense of the capital, demanded that Izyaslav (the Prince of Kyiv) distribute weapons to them. His refusal provoked a popular uprising. Izyaslav was expelled from Kyiv, and Vseslav, an old enemy of the Yaroslavichs, sat on the throne.
In 1069, the Yaroslavichs returned the throne to Izyaslav.
IN 1072 the brothers created the second part of the code of laws - Russian Truth - Pravda Yaroslavich. Blood feud has been replaced by a fine for murder - Viroy. The size of the vira depended on the social status of the resident of Rus'. Thus, we obtain information about the social structure of Kievan Rus.
The main stratum of the population in Rus' is "People"- free community peasants.
Categories of the dependent population are presented stinkers(people dependent on the prince), and slaves(slaves). Serfs were divided into whitewash(full) and unwhitewashed. The obelnye had absolutely no rights, but it was from among them that officials were often appointed, in particular, tiuns (managers collecting tribute and conducting trade on behalf of princes or boyars) and klyuchniki (housekeepers). Among the non-white ones stand out procurement(debt slaves, “kupa” – debt) and ryadovichi(slaves under contract, “row” – contract). Slavery in Rus' was patriarchal in nature and had little in common with classical ancient slavery.
IN 1073 begins The third strife in Rus'- the struggle between the Yaroslavichs for power, which ultimately led to the destruction of a single state. The throne is seized by Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, who ruled Kiev until his own death (1076). Izyaslav, with the help of Vsevolod, returns to Kyiv. The son of Svyatoslav Oleg acts against the Yaroslavichs in alliance with the Polovtsians.
1078 - battle on Nezhatina Niva between the Yaroslavichs and Oleg Svyatoslavich. The brothers won, but Izyaslav died.
1078 - 1093 - reign in Kyiv of Vsevolod Yaroslavich.
1093 - 1113 – the reign of Izyaslav’s son Svyatopolk, who, like his predecessors, receives power horizontally ( "ladder") system of succession to the throne, established after Yaroslav the Wise. Power is transferred not from father to son, but “to the eldest in the family” - the next oldest brother, and then the eldest of the nephews.
IN 1097 gg. On the initiative of the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (grandson of Yaroslav the Wise), a congress of princes convened in Lyubech. Goals of the congress:
- Stopping strife.
- Organization of campaigns against the Steppe (against the Polovtsians).
The princes agreed on joint campaigns. They took place in 1103 - 1111. The campaign of 1111 was called the “Crusade against the Steppe.” The leader of the hikes is Vladimir Monomakh.
To stop the strife, the princes established a new principle for organizing power in Rus': “Everyone should keep his fatherland,” i.e. the princes were asked to rule their own estates without regard to Kyiv. This decision formally proclaimed feudal fragmentation, but did not contribute to the cessation of strife. Svyatopolk Izyaslavich was actively involved in pitting the princes against each other.
IN 1113 Svyatopolk died and an uprising broke out in Kyiv against the moneylenders and salt speculators whom he supported. Only Vladimir Monomakh, who was invited to the throne, managed to calm the rebels.
Vladimir's events:
- "Charter of Vladimir Monomakh" ( "Charter on cuts") – addition to Russian Pravda. Together with the Truth of Yaroslav and the Truth of the Yaroslavichs, which made up the first - Brief- edition of Russian Pravda, the Charter forms the second - Extensive. The “Charter” limited the arbitrariness of moneylenders. Purchases received permission to leave their owners to earn money.
- Campaigns against the Polovtsians are organized. They are not destroyed, but are forced to enter into an alliance with the Russian princes.
- A literary work was created - “Lesson for Children” - the first political treatise in Rus'.
The colossal authority of Vladimir Monomakh ( 1113 – 1125 gg.) and his son Mstislav the Great (1125 - 1132) still allowed to maintain the integrity of Kievan Rus, but with 1132 feudal fragmentation begins.
In the St. Sophia Cathedral of Constantinople There was a division of the Christian Church - the Great Schism - into Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Greek Catholic). During the service, the papal legates, who arrived in the capital of Byzantium for negotiations, walked to the altar and, interrupting the liturgy, made an accusatory speech against Patriarch Michael Kirularius. Then they placed on the throne a papal bull in Latin, which stated the excommunication of the patriarch and his followers from the church. Patriarch Michael’s answer was not long in coming: a few days later he convened a council, at which he anathematized the pope and his followers. This is how the Great Schism occurred, but deep irreconcilable disagreements between the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople had been brewing for more than one century, and the historical preconditions for the schism began in the early Middle Ages.
V. Zhidchenko / RIA Novosti In Vyshgorod
Prince of Kyiv Yaroslav the Wise died. Over the 44 years of his reign (34 of which he was the Grand Duke of Kyiv), he, like none of his predecessors, managed to strengthen and increase the authority of the Old Russian state in the eyes of its neighbors. European monarchs considered it an honor to become related to the Rurikovichs. One of Yaroslav’s daughters, Anna, became the wife of the French king Henry I, and his son Vsevolod was married to the daughter of Constantine Monomakh. However, Yaroslav became famous not so much for his wise conduct of foreign policy as for his concern for domestic affairs. One of the prince’s main merits was the creation of the first written code of laws in Rus' called “Yaroslav’s Truth.” In 1282, Yaroslav's Truth will be included in a more complete and detailed set of laws - the Russian Truth. Under him, the Old Russian state experienced its cultural flourishing: the first monasteries appeared, and Greek manuscripts began to be copied and translated in Kyiv scriptoria. On the initiative of Yaroslav, the thirteen-domed St. Sophia Cathedral was erected in Kyiv. On his deathbed, the Grand Duke bequeathed to his children to remain in love and harmony among themselves, but because of the new order of succession to the throne, which he had established, the sons were unable to fulfill their father’s order, and a few years after the death of Yaroslav, Rus' would plunge into the darkness of internecine wars . Quiet Brahe. Portrait of 1596 Skokloster Castle / Wikimedia Commons In China
for twenty-three days a bright flash could be observed in the sky. Chinese astronomers have recorded the appearance of a “guest star”—that’s the name observers gave it—in the constellation Taurus. This new star became so bright in just a few days that it became four times brighter than Venus. One of the five astronomers whose written observations have survived to this day, Yang Wei-Ti, recorded that it had a bright yellow color and was visible even during the day. But after some time, the “guest” faded away, leaving behind a nebula that later researchers would call the Crab Nebula. A star similar to it will appear again in the sky only after half a millennium, and its appearance will be documented by the great astronomer Tycho Brahe. Alp Arslan humiliates Romanos IV Diogenes. Miniature from an illustrated book“On the Misfortunes of Famous People” by Giovanni Boccaccio. 15th century
Bibliothèque nationale de France was besieged by the troops of the Seljuk Sultan Togrul Beg. Due to its favorable location - the Manzikert (Manazkert) fortress was a kind of “gate” to Asia Minor - it was a tasty morsel for the conquerors. Over the long history of its existence, it managed to be under the rule of the Assyrians, Romans, Sassanids, and in 986 it was conquered by the Byzantines. Seljuk troops fired at the besieged city from a captured throwing machine - a trebuchet that once belonged to the Byzantines. One of the residents of the besieged city broke through to the enemy gun and set it on fire using a special flammable mixture - “Greek fire”. The trebuchet was disabled and the city was saved. The further fate of the nameless hero, as you might guess, was tragic. Unfortunately, this victory was not final. 17 years later, in 1071, a battle took place at Manzikert that was fatal for the Byzantine Empire. The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantine army and captured Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes, who was released only on condition of paying an annual tribute. The victory of the Seljuks opened the way for the Turkic tribes into the depths of Asia Minor and accelerated the establishment of Turkish power in this territory.
Leo IX. Fragment of an engraving. 16th century Bibliothèque nationale et universitaire de Strasbourg In Rome Pope Leo IX died. After the death of Pope Damasus II, Emperor Henry III, in the presence of Roman legates, appointed the then Bishop Bruno as Pope. However, Bruno wished to be elected to the Holy See according to ancient customs. The future pope arrived in the capital of the Western Roman Empire as a pilgrim - upon entering Rome, he took off his sandals and, barefoot, humbly reciting prayers, headed to the tomb of St. Peter. There he announced to the Romans that he had been sent to them by the emperor as the new pope, but did not intend to stay if they did not wish to do so. However, the Romans accepted him, and then the archdeacon of the Roman Church uttered the traditional phrase: “St. Peter chose Bruno.” During the short five years of his papacy, he carried out a major reform of the church, condemned the buying and selling of church orders (simony) and the sexual promiscuity of priests. As part of his reform activities, Leo IX traveled a lot throughout Europe and, wherever he went, he actively called for the fight against these vices. But the pope's gaze was turned not only to the internal problems of the church. From 1050, all his attention was directed to Southern Italy, which was under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople and the authority of the Norman tribes. The desire of Leo IX to subjugate these lands served as the impetus for an acute conflict with the Byzantine Church and became one of the reasons for the Great Schism. After several years of unsuccessful peace negotiations with the Normans, Leo IX tried to persuade Henry III to postpone the war with the Hungarians and provide troops to fight the barbarians, but was refused. Then Leo IX himself took up the sword and set out on a campaign, but in the battle of Civitella the papal army, consisting of a small detachment of mercenaries, was defeated, and the pope surrendered. Leo IX was held in Norman captivity for almost a year and, already terminally ill, was released and taken to Rome, where he soon died, not three months before the Great Schism.
Fragment of the frieze of the National Portrait Gallery of Scotland. Mosaic by William Hole. 1898 rampantscotland.com In Scotland near Dunsinane Fortress A battle took place between the Scottish king Macbeth and Earl Siward. The reason was Macbeth's cover for the Normans, who were removed from the court of Edward the Confessor; the reason was, of course, the crown. It was in Siward's interests to overthrow Macbeth, who was disliked by him and his clan, and to place his relative Malcolm on the throne. Despite the victory in this battle, Siward failed to carry out his plan - Macbeth remained king of Scotland for another three years, until he was killed by Malcolm at the Battle of Lumphanan in Aberdeen. By the end of the 14th century, Macbeth's life had become a legend, where the Scottish king was portrayed as a merciless, bloody tyrant, which he most likely was not. Macbeth contributed to the spread of Christianity in Scotland, and in 1050 he made a pilgrimage to Rome, where he became famous for his generous donations to the Catholic Church. However, a beautiful legend is always more attractive and interesting than the truth. The tales of the Scottish troubadours formed the basis of Shakespeare's famous play Macbeth, from which our idea of this monarch was formed.
Garcia III. Fragment of an illustration from the manuscript “Genealogia dos Reis de Portugal”. Portugal, 1530-1534 British Library Under Atapuerca On the territory of modern Spain, a battle took place between the armies of Castile and Navarre, during which King Garcia of Navarre was killed. As is often the case, two brothers fought - Ferdinand I and Garcia III. One of the brothers, namely Garcia, considered himself unfairly treated in the distribution of lands after the death of his father Sancho III the Great and decided to attack Castile. The campaign against his brother was not successful, and Garcia III paid with his life for his desire to annex additional lands, without having time to leave any significant mark on history.
William I the Conqueror. Painting by an unknown artist. 1590-1620s National Portrait Gallery, London At the Battle of Mortimer French king Henry I was defeated by William (the future William the Conqueror). This was one of the first large and significant battles for William. The prerequisite for this battle was a number of rather complicated circumstances related to the division of lands and influence. The participants in the events were kings, dukes and their vassals. As a result, in 1053, the first attack of Henry I’s army on the Norman possessions took place, and a year later he began a large-scale invasion of William’s lands. The troops of the Duke of Aquitaine and the counts of Burgundy and Anjou also acted on the side of Henry I. The French king decided to divide the army into two parts. After one of them was completely defeated at Mortimer, Henry I was forced to retreat. Many noble knights were captured, and after some time became William's vassals.
